Psychoactive Substance Use Among Young People
CHAPTER ONE
Objective of the Study
The main purpose of the study is to determine the prevalence and pattern of psychoactive substance in Nigeria. The Specific Objectives are to
- Identify the Causes of Psychoactive substance use by young people in Nigeria
- Establish the Pattern of Psychoactive Use/Abuse among young people in nigeria.
- Discuss the Problems Associated with Psychoactive Substance Use.
- Highlight the Effects of Substance Abuse
- Identify the Symptoms of Psychoactive Substance Dependence
- Determine the Treatment Modalities of Psychoactive Substance Abuse
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Conceptual Review
Concept of Psychoactive Substance
Throughout history many cultures have found ways to alter consciousness through the ingestion of substances. In current professional practice, psychoactive substances known as psychotropic drugs have been developed to treat patients with severe mental illness. Psychoactive substances exert their effects by modifying biochemical or physiological processes in the brain. The message system of nerve cells, or neurons, relies on both electrical and chemical transmissions. Neurons rarely touch each other; the microscopic gap between one neuron and the next, called the synapse, is bridged by chemicals called neuroregulators, or neurotransmitters.
According to Psychology Dictionary (2002) psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that affect the brain functioning, causing changes in behavior, mood and consciousness. Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that alter mood, behavior, perception, or mental functioning. Psychoactive drugs act by altering neurotransmitter function. The drugs can be divided into six major pharmacological classes based on their desired behavioral or psychological effect: alcohol, sedative-hypnotics, narcotic analgesics, stimulant-euphoriants, hallucinogens, and psychotropic agents.
A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, or psychotropic is a chemical substance that crosses the blood–brain barrier and acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it affects brain function, resulting in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, and behaviour. These substances may be used recreationally, to purposefully alter one’s consciousness, or as entheogens, for ritual, spiritual, and/or shamanic purposes, as a tool for studying or augmenting the mind. Many psychoactive drugs have therapeutic utility, e.g., as anesthetics, analgesics, or for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Psychoactive substances often bring about subjective changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find pleasant (e.g. euphoria) or advantageous (e.g. increased alertness) and are thus reinforcing. Thus, many psychoactive substances are abused, that is used excessively, despite health risks or negative consequences with sustained use of some of the substances
Alcohol has always been the most widely used psychoactive substance. In most countries it is the only psychoactive drug legally available without prescription. Pleasant relaxation is commonly the desired effect, but intoxication impairs judgment and motor performance. When used chronically, alcohol can be toxic to liver and brain cells and can be physiologically addicting, producing dangerous withdrawal syndromes (Berger and Philip, 2009)
Sedative-hypnotics, such as the barbiturates and diazepam (widely known under the brand name Valium), include brain depressants, which are used medically to help people sleep (sleeping pills), and antianxiety agents, which are used to calm people without inducing sleep. Sedative-hypnotics are used illegally to produce relaxation, tranquility, and euphoria. Overdoses of sedative-hypnotics can be fatal; all can be physiologically addicting, and some can cause a life-threatening withdrawal syndrome. Narcotic analgesics—opiate (Opium) such as morphine and heroin—are prescribed to produce analgesia. Because the relief of pain is one of the primary tasks of medical treatment, opiates have been among the most important and valuable drugs in medicine. Illegal use of narcotic analgesics involves injecting these substances, particularly heroin, into the veins to produce euphoria. Opiates are physiologically addicting and can produce a quite unpleasant withdrawal syndrome.
Stimulant such as amphetamines and methylphenidates, are prescribed by physicians to treat children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and individuals with narcolepsy. Although amphetamines stimulate adults, they have a paradoxically calming effect on certain children who have short attention spans and are hyperactive. Cocaine is used medically as a local anaesthetic. Amphetamines and cocaine are used illegally to produce alertness and euphoria, to prevent drowsiness, and to improve performance in physical and mental tasks such as athletic events and college examinations.
Hallucinogens—psychedelic drugs such as LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide), mescaline, and PCP (Phencyclidine) have little medical use. They are taken illegally to alter perception and thinking patterns. Marijuana is a weak hallucinogen that may be medically useful in suppressing the nausea caused by cancer treatments and possibly in reducing eye pressure in certain severe glaucomas.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH DESIGN:
Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures guiding researcher to collect their data and analysis for their research. The most common research designs that the researchers always uses is exploratory, descriptive and causal. In the present study, exploratory and descriptive study is used as a purpose of the study to obtain and analyse the data. Exploratory study is important for obtaining a good grasp of the phenomena of interest and for advancing knowledge through good theory building.
In this study, the exploratory research includes literature reviews in order to gain more detailed information about the research problems and issues related with the shoppers’ perception of service quality in organised retail. Descriptive research is typically more formal and structured than Exploratory research (Malhotra, 2005). It is based on large, representative samples and the data obtained are subjected to quantitative analysis.
CHAPTER FOUR
DISCUSSIONS OF FINDING
Causes of psychoactive substance use
Substance use seems to be linked to many factors. Black and Matassarin-Jacobs (1993) explains the possible causes of substance use as the followings factors. These factors are likely to coexist.
Biological Factors:
If parents have addiction struggles, chances are that the offspring of that family will be detectable to addiction. . Black and Matassarin-Jacobs (1993) refers to biologic theorist’s speculation that substance dependant people may lack naturally occurring endorphins (chemicals in the brain) and, therefore take substances in a physiologic attempt to replace the missing chemicals. Probably this suggests interplay between personality features and genetic susceptibility in the individual response to the chemical substance family role models who drink excessively.
Behavioral Factors
Behaviourists believe that rewards or “pay off” from use reinforce the use of any given substance. Culturally, the acceptance of various substance influences levels of use, e.g. a permissive attitude towards alcohol. Social acceptance of the offending substance is therefore a key issue in substance use (Mireku, 2002; Emenike and Ogbonna, 1995).
Occupational Factors
The occupation of the person (high-stress jobs) has a high incidence of substance use. Bar staff that has regular contact with alcohol and therefore predisposed to the use of alcohol.
Psychodynamic Factors
A number of psychological theories have attempted to explain how people become substance dependent. People who are alcoholic dependent have often been viewed as individuals who easily succumb to the escape provided by alcohol. Psychoanalytic theory describes people with alcohol dependency as having strong oral tendencies related to unresolved needs for early attachments (Frosch, 1985),
Peer Pressure
Peer pressure is huge and many people tend to indulge in activities that their peers are involved in so as to maintain the relationship.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSION
The study covered the Concept of psychoactive substances and psychoactive abuse. Most of the literature reviewed showed that, throughout the ages, people have used various substances to alter their mood perception or behaviour. Most of these substances were derived from plants or their seeds and included marijuana, coca leaves, opium and psilocybin from mushrooms. Refined substances include alcohol, heroin and cocaine. Synthetic drugs include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), phencyclidine (PCP), Cracic and amphetamine.
Also the study focuses on pattern and prevalence of psychoactive substance which smoking huping, injection etc. Problems associated with psychoactive use include psychological problem like hallucination euphoria, amnesia and distortion of thinking. Behavioural problem include difficulty in maintaining successful relationship which often leads to isolation divorce, loss of job etc. Physical problem associated with drug abuse include anxiety, craving, tremor and malnutrition in chronic and prolong use. Addiction is divided into two, psychological and physical addiction.
Treatment modalities of psychoactive abuse include psychological treatment which is by the use of psychotherapy, psychoeducation and family therapy. Another method of treating drug abuse is by the use of drugs. Drugs commonly used in treatment of psychoactive substance abuse are Naltrexone, diulprim etc. Nevertheless, the review touches some common features associated with risk factors of substance abuse, which include availability and encouragement, adverse social conditions, environmental or biological factors, psychological influences, disabilities, developmental influences and cultural influence. The study also considered some causes of psychoactive substance abuse which include biological, psychosocial and socio-cultural in nature. These factors are likely to coexist. One group of theories considers the importance of personality.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations could reduce the prevalence of drug abuse if not totally eradicated among students of Ahmadu Bello University.
- More awareness on the meaning of psychoactive substance abuse should be made available in courses, in guidance and counseling centres and bill boards as majority of the students did not have knowledge of psychoactive substances and its use.
- Early health education on the effect of psychoactive substance should commence at an early age before students gain admission into the university.
- Equal attention should be paid to both male and female students on the effects of psychoactive substance use.
- Close attention should be paid to all students regardless of their socio-economic background since monthly allowance does not influence the use of psychoactive substances.
- Students whose parents are dead are prone to psychoactive substance abuse, so they should be given special attention by the university authorities.
REFERENCES
- Ajala , M. (2010). Challenges and prospects of drug use among sabongari youth community (Unpublished research) Zaria, Kaduna.
- Ajazen. I. (2005). Theory of planned behaviour. Organisational behaviour and human decision processes. African journal of drug and alcohol studies.
- Awake!. (2005). Alcohol misuse and health-the drinking trap: are you at risk? New York: Watchtowers Bible and Tract Society.
- American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
- Anderson, R., & Gittler, J. (2005). Unmet Need For Community-Based Mental Health and
- Substance Use Treatment Among Rural Adolescents. Community Mental Health Journal, 41(1), 35-49. Retrieved March 25, 2014, from Academic Search
- Agwogie, M.O. (2010). An investigation into the Nature and predisposing factors related to drug Abuse in Kano and Lagos State. Unpublished M.ED. Thesis A.B.U. Zaria
