Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Prevention of Cervical Cancer Among Women of Reproductive Age in Abeokuta, Ogun State
Chapter One
Objectives of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the prevalence, risk factors, and prevention of cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun State. Specifically, the study will;
- Determine the prevalence of cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun State
- Examine the level of awareness and knowledge about cervical cancer among women of reproductive age.
- Assess the various risk factors associated with cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun State
- Evaluate the adoption of lifestyle modifications and other preventive measures against cervical cancer by women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun State,
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Concept Of Cancer
According to Cancer research UK (2021), cancer is a disorder that results from genetic or epigenetic alterations in the somatic cells and has abnormal cell growth which may be spread to other body parts. They form a subset of neoplasm. The unregulated growth of cells in a group called neoplasm or tumor and they form a lump or mass and may be distributed diffusely.
It was predicted by Global demographic characteristics that about 420 million new cases of cancer by 2025 annually, which means increasing cancer incidence in years. Cases of cancer about 18 million in 2018 were recorded worldwide; in men, about 9.5 million and women about 8.5 million.
Globally about 9.6 million deaths were estimated in cancer. The commonest cancers are prostate cancer (1.28 million), female breast cancer (2.09 million), colorectal cancer (1.1 million), stomach cancer (1.03 million) and non-melanoma skin malignancies (1.04 million). Cancer-related deaths, from most to least frequent, are due to lung cancer (1.76 million), colorectal cancer (862,000), and stomach cancer (783,000), liver cancer (782,000). Over 100 types of cancers affect humans (Cancer research UK 2021).
Facts About Cancer
- Globally about 9.6 million in 2018 deaths were estimated in cancer which represents the cancer is the second leading cause of deaths and about 1 in 6 deaths are due to cancer.
- About 70% of deaths in middle- income and Low Countries are due to cancer.
- The main and the most important cause of cancer is tobacco use, approximately 22%
- There are also some infections that cause cancer, like Human papilloma Virus (HPV), are causes 25% of cancer in middle and low-income countries.
- In 2017, solely twenty-sixths of low-income countries reported having pathology services usually obtainable within the public sector.
- More than ninetieth of high-income countries reported treatment services square measure obtainable compared to but a half- hour of low-income countries.
- The impact of cancer is increasing significantly day by day.
- The cancer policy is necessary for all countries, but many countries do not have these policies (Cancer research UK 2021).
Problems: Globally, about 9.6 million in 2018 deaths were estimated in cancer, which represents the cancer is the second leading cause of deaths. The most common cancers are:
- Lung (2.09 million cases)
- Breast (2.09 million cases)
- Colorectal (1.80 million cases)
- Prostate (1.28 million cases)
- Skin cancer (non-melanoma) (1.04 million cases)
- Stomach (1.03 million cases)
The most common causes of cancer death are cancers of:
- Lung (1.76 million deaths)
- Colorectal (862 000 deaths)
- Stomach (783 000 deaths)
- Liver (782 000 deaths)
- Breast (627 000 deaths) (Cancer research UK 2021).
Causes Of Cancer:
There are many causes which may cause cancer in different body parts like mainly 22% deaths are due to tobacco consumption, 10% of deaths are due to poor diet, obesity, lack of physical activity, excessive drinking of alcohol or other facts include certain exposure to ionizing radiation, environmental pollutants, and infection (Towler Irwig &, Glasziou 1998).
- About 15% of cancer in the world is due to some infections like hepatitis b, hepatitis c, human papillomavirus infection, helicobacter pylori, and immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Epstein – Barr virus. These factors are at least partly responsible for changing the genes.
- Inherited genetic defects from patient’s parents are also responsible for 5-10% of cancer (Towler Irwig &, Glasziou 1998).
- Cancer is caused by the interaction between genetic factors and 3 categories of agents which we consume externally including:
i. Physical Carcinogens: Ionizing radiation such as radon, ultraviolet rays from sunlight, uranium, radiation from alpha, gamma, beta, and X-ray-emitting sources.
ii. Chemical Carcinogens: Compounds like n- nitrosamines, asbestos, cadmium, benzene, vinyl chloride, nickel, and benzidine and contains about 60 known potent cancer- causing toxins or chemicals in cigarette smoking or tobacco consumption, a drinking water contaminant (arsenic), a food contaminant (aflatoxin) (Towler Irwig &, Glasziou 1998).
Biological Carcinogens: Infections from certain bacteria, viruses, or parasites and Pathogens like human papillomavirus (HPV), EBV or Epstein-Barr virus, hepatitis B and C, Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), Markel cell polyomavirus, Schistosoma spp., and Helicobacter pylori.
Aging is also the cause of cancer. Age is the common incidence of cancer, which dramatically rises.
Genetics: Genetic is the commonest cause for cancer or tumor-like Ovarian, breast, prostate, skin cancer, colorectal cancer. Individuals that eat heaps of cooked meat can also increase risk because of compounds fashioned at high temperatures. Proving that a substance doesn’t cause or isn’t associated with hyperbolic cancer risk is tough (Towler Irwig &, Glasziou 1998).
Types Of Cancer:
Wong (2013) opines that cancers are divided into various types that are:
a. Carcinomas: It starts in the tissue or the skin, which covers the glands and internal organ surface. It forms a solid tumor. Breast cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer.
b. Sarcomas: It starts in the tissues which connect and support the body. It can be formed in nerves, tendons, joints, fat, blood vessels, bone, lymph vessels, muscles, or cartilage.
c. Leukemia’s: Leukemia is a cancer of the blood. It begins when healthy blood cells grow uncontrollably and change. It is divided into 4 types, that are acute myeloid leukemia, acute lymphocytic leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia, and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (Wong 2013).
d. Lymphomas: Lymphoma is cancer that begins in the lymphatic system and it is a network of glands and vessels that helps to fight with infection. Hodgkin lymphoma and Non- Hodgkin lymphoma.
e. Central Nervous System Cancers: Cancer that starts in brain tissues and spinal cord called “brain and spinal cord tumors”, and others primary CNS lymphomas, vestibular schwannomas, gliomas, pituitary adenomas, primitive neuro-ectodermal tumors, meningiomas, and vestibular schwannomas.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
In this chapter, we described the research procedure for this study. A research methodology is a research process adopted or employed to systematically and scientifically present the results of a study to the research audience viz. a vis, the study beneficiaries.
Research Design
Research designs are perceived to be an overall strategy adopted by the researcher whereby different components of the study are integrated in a logical manner to effectively address a research problem. In this study, the researcher employed the survey research design. This is due to the nature of the study whereby the opinion and views of people are sampled. According to Singleton & Straits, (2009), Survey research can use quantitative research strategies (e.g., using questionnaires with numerically rated items), qualitative research strategies (e.g., using open-ended questions), or both strategies (i.e. mixed methods). As it is often used to describe and explore human behaviour, surveys are therefore frequently used in social and psychological research.
Population of the Study
According to Udoyen (2019), a study population is a group of elements or individuals, as the case may be, who share similar characteristics. These similar features can include location, gender, age, sex or specific interest. The emphasis on study population is that it constitutes individuals or elements that are homogeneous in description.
This study was carried out to examine the prevalence, risk factors, and prevention of cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun state. Hence, the population of this study comprises of women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun state.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
This chapter presents the analysis of data derived through the questionnaire and key informant interview administered on the respondents in the study area. The analysis and interpretation were derived from the findings of the study. The data analysis depicts the simple frequency and percentage of the respondents as well as interpretation of the information gathered. A total of one hundred and forty-seven (147) questionnaires were administered to respondents of which only one hundred and forty-one (141) were returned and validated. This was due to irregular, incomplete and inappropriate responses to some questionnaire. For this study a total of 141 was validated for the analysis.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:
Introduction
This chapter summarizes the findings on the prevalence, risk factors, and prevention of cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun state. The chapter consists of summary of the study, conclusions, and recommendations.
Summary of the Study
In this study, our focus was to examine the prevalence, risk factors, and prevention of cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun state. The study specifically was aimed to determine the prevalence of cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun State, examine the level of awareness and knowledge about cervical cancer among women of reproductive age, assess the various risk factors associated with cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun State, and evaluate the adoption of lifestyle modifications and other preventive measures against cervical cancer by women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun State.
The study adopted the survey research design and randomly enrolled participants in the study. A total of 141 responses were validated from the enrolled participants where all respondents are women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun state.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of this study, the researcher made the following conclusion.
- The extent of cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun State is high.
- The level of awareness and knowledge about cervical cancer among women of reproductive age is low.
- The various risk factors associated with cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in Abeokuta, Ogun State includes: human papillomavirus, Alcohol/smoking, Oral contraceptives, Immune system deficiency.
- The preventive measures are adopted by women to mitigate the risk of cervical cancer includes: HPV vaccination, routine cervical cancer screening, smoking cessation, and establishing and maintaining a treatment referral network.
Recommendation
Based on the findings the researcher recommends that;
- The government should show greater commitment for cervical cancer control by expediting policy making process and increasing funding for cervical cancer control.
- Stake holders for cervical cancer control including women, politicians, heads of medical institutions, MOH officers, NGOs, professional groups including Society for Gynecologists and Obstetricians of Nigeria (SOGON), Nigeria Cancer Society, Society of Oncology and Cancer Research in Nigeria should meet and decide on policy thrust.
- Health workers at the level of Health Centre II and above should be supported and trained on the cancer of the cervix and empowered to pass on knowledge to the populations they serve.
- Also, the National program on cervical cancer control should be integrated into the existing health system. Thus, it should be community or population based.
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