Policing and Human Rights Recognition in Nigeria; A Study of the Special Anti-robbery Squad 1992 – 2020
Chapter One
Objectives of the Study
This research aims to achieve the following specific objectives:
- To examine the historical background and evolution of the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) in Nigeria from 1992 to 2020.
- To investigate the extent and nature of human rights violations by SARS during the stated period.
- To assess the response of the Nigerian government and relevant authorities to the allegations of human rights violations by SARS and evaluate the effectiveness of measures taken to address the issue.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Conceptual Review
Policing in Nigeria
Policing in Nigeria has been a subject of extensive scrutiny and criticism due to longstanding issues of cirriform and human rights abuses (Abubakar, 2019). The Nigerian Police Force, established during the colonial era, has faced challenges in adapting to the country’s changing social and political landscape (Nwafor, 2020). While its primary mandate is to maintain law and order, provide security, and prevent and investigate crimes, the force has often been accused of failing to uphold these responsibilities (Oluwafemi, 2021).
One of the critical challenges facing the Nigerian Police Force is the lack of adequate training and capacity-building programs for officers (Dike, 2022). This deficiency has contributed to their limited ability to handle complex and evolving security threats and has led to instances of excessive use of force and human rights violations (Hussaini, 2019). Furthermore, the force suffers from a severe shortage of personnel, resulting in inadequate coverage and response times in many regions (Ugochukwu, 2020).
Moreover, the issue of corruption within the police force has been a persistent concern (Adeleke, 2021). Reports of bribery, extortion, and abuse of power have raised questions about the integrity and credibility of the Nigerian Police Force (Abdullahi, 2019). This lack of trust between the police and the public has further strained community-police relations and hindered effective policing efforts (Okoro, 2021).
In recent years, there have been calls for comprehensive police reforms to address these challenges (Ojo, 2022). The #EndSARS protests in 2020, sparked by the alleged human rights violations by the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS), brought the issue of police reform to the forefront of public discourse (Oyeniyi, 2020). The Nigerian government’s subsequent disbandment of SARS was seen as a step towards reform, but it also highlighted the need for broader systemic changes (Falana, 2021).
In conclusion, policing in Nigeria has been marred by a complex web of challenges, including corruption, inadequate training, understaffing, and human rights violations. These issues have strained the relationship between law enforcement agencies and the public, leading to a loss of trust and confidence in the Nigerian Police Force. The #EndSARS protests brought significant attention to the need for comprehensive police reforms and underscored the urgency of addressing these long-standing issues to ensure effective and rights-respecting policing in Nigeria (Ahmed, 2021).
Human Rights Recognition and Protection
Human rights recognition and protection are fundamental principles enshrined in international law and constitute the foundation of a just and equitable society (United Nations, 2019). In Nigeria, the recognition and protection of human rights have been essential components of the country’s legal framework, as articulated in the Nigerian Constitution and international treaties to which Nigeria is a signatory (Okonkwo, 2020).
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948, serves as a cornerstone document for promoting and protecting human rights globally (United Nations, 2020). Nigeria’s commitment to upholding human rights is reflected in its ratification of various international human rights instruments, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Convention Against Torture (CAT) (Okafor, 2021).
However, despite these commitments, the practical implementation of human rights recognition and protection in Nigeria has faced challenges. Reports from human rights organizations have documented numerous cases of human rights violations by state actors, including law enforcement agencies (Adejumo, 2020). Incidents of extrajudicial killings, torture, and arbitrary arrests have been a matter of concern, particularly in the context of police operations like the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) (Amnesty International, 2021).
The lack of effective accountability mechanisms for human rights violations has perpetuated a culture of impunity within Nigeria’s law enforcement system (Okezie, 2022). This culture of impunity not only undermines public trust in the police but also hampers efforts to address human rights abuses and hold perpetrators accountable (Eze, 2021).
The Nigerian government has taken some steps to address human rights issues, such as the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) and the enactment of laws protecting human rights (Nnamani, 2019). However, the practical implementation and enforcement of these laws remain challenging, and many cases of human rights violations go unaddressed (Umeadi, 2020).
The #EndSARS protests in 2020 further highlighted the urgent need for better human rights recognition and protection in Nigeria (Amnesty International, 2020). The demands of the protesters extended beyond the disbandment of SARS to encompass broader calls for police reform and the enhancement of human rights standards in law enforcement practices (Chukwu, 2021).
Chapter Three
Methodology
Introduction
This chapter outlines the research methodology employed in the study on “Policing and Human Rights Recognition in Nigeria: A Study of the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) 1992-2020.” The methodology section provides a comprehensive overview of the research design, population, sampling technique, data collection methods, data analysis, validity, and reliability considerations, as well as ethical considerations taken into account during the study.
Research Design
The research design for this study is a quantitative survey research design. This design was chosen because it allows for the collection of large-scale data from a significant number of respondents, providing a comprehensive understanding of the perceptions and experiences of individuals regarding policing and human rights in Nigeria (Creswell, 2019). The study aims to assess public perceptions of the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) and its impact on human rights recognition, and a quantitative survey allows for the systematic collection and analysis of data on a wide range of variables. The use of a quantitative survey design is justified as it enables the researchers to obtain numerical data, making it easier to identify trends and patterns in the responses obtained from the respondents (Bryman, 2020).
Population of the Study
The target population for this study consists of individuals aged 18 years and above, residing in various regions of Nigeria, who have had direct or indirect encounters or experiences with the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) or possess knowledge about its activities (Sounders & Field, 2021). Considering the study’s focus on assessing public perceptions of SARS, individuals who have been victims of human rights violations, witnessed incidents of abuse, or have knowledge of SARS activities are vital to gather comprehensive and diverse data. The justification for selecting a population of 1300 respondents is based on the need for a sufficiently large sample size to ensure the study’s findings are statistically significant and representative of the broader population (Kothari, 2019). A larger sample size enhances the accuracy and reliability of the study’s results and allows for meaningful sub-group analyses.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Data Presentation
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of Findings
Tables 4.1 to 4.7 present key findings related to the respondents’ demographic and socio-economic information, their familiarity with the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) and its activities, as well as their gender, age, educational level, and employment status.
Table 4.1 provides insights into the distribution of completed questionnaires among the respondents. The data shows that 85.8% of the questionnaires were returned and completed, while 14.2% were not returned or completed. The high percentage of completed questionnaires indicates a good response rate, which enhances the reliability of the study’s findings. The relatively low percentage of non-returned or incomplete questionnaires might be attributed to various factors, such as participants’ busy schedules, lack of interest, or potential discomfort in sharing their experiences related to the sensitive topic of human rights violations by SARS. Nonetheless, the response rate is considered satisfactory, and the study can draw meaningful conclusions from the available data.
Table 4.2 explores the respondents’ familiarity with SARS and its activities. The data reveals that 34.3% of respondents reported being “Very Familiar” with SARS, while 65.7% indicated being “Somewhat Familiar.” The absence of respondents indicating “Not Familiar” suggests that SARS has gained significant attention and awareness among the study participants. The high percentage of respondents being “Somewhat Familiar” might indicate that they have heard about SARS through media coverage or discussions within their communities, while those being “Very Familiar” could be individuals with more direct experiences or knowledge about the unit. The relatively lower percentage of “Very Familiar” responses could be attributed to the unit’s dissolution in response to the #EndSARS protests, which might have impacted its visibility or operations during the study period.
Table 4.3 provides data on the respondents’ gender. The results show that 62.0% of participants identified as female, while 38.0% identified as male. The higher representation of female respondents might be indicative of their increased willingness to participate in surveys or research studies. However, the gender distribution should not significantly impact the study’s findings, as it is reflective of the demographics of the sample population. It is essential to consider gender dynamics while interpreting the study’s results, particularly concerning the impact of human rights violations on different genders and the potential implications of gender-based discrimination in law enforcement practices.
Table 4.4 delves into the age distribution of the respondents. The data reveals that the majority of respondents (56.5%) fall within the age range of 18-35, with 26.9% being between 18-25 and 29.6% between 26-35. The distribution indicates that a significant proportion of the respondents are young adults, which aligns with the fact that young people were at the forefront of the #EndSARS protests and advocacy for police reform. The presence of respondents in older age categories (36-45, 46-55, and 56 and above) indicates a diverse representation, ensuring a broader range of perspectives on the subject matter.
Table 4.5 explores the educational level of the respondents. The data shows that the majority of participants (64.8%) have a postgraduate level of education, followed by 17.6% with higher education (college/university) and 12.0% with primary school education. The relatively lower percentage of respondents with secondary school education might be due to factors such as the higher accessibility of educational opportunities in recent times. The distribution of educational levels indicates that the study attracts respondents with diverse educational backgrounds, potentially enriching the analysis with various perspectives and insights.
Table 4.6 provides data on the employment status of the respondents. The results show that 54.6% of participants reported being employed, while 14.8% identified as retired, and 13.0% were unemployed. The representation of students (2.8%) and individuals in other categories (14.8%) reflects a diverse sample that includes both active members of the workforce and those outside the traditional workforce. The distribution of employment status ensures a range of perspectives on the impact of human rights violations by SARS officers on different segments of society, such as employees, retirees, and students.
Table 4.7 explores whether the respondents or their family members have had direct or indirect encounters with SARS officers. The data reveals that a significant majority (88.0%) responded affirmatively, indicating that they or someone they know have experienced encounters with SARS officers. The relatively low percentage of respondents indicating no encounters (12.0%) highlights the wide prevalence of interactions between the public and SARS, with potential implications for understanding the extent of human rights violations and the need for comprehensive reforms. The high percentage of respondents with direct or indirect encounters with SARS officers underscores the importance of their perspectives and experiences in shaping the study’s findings and recommendations.
In summary, Tables 4.1 to 4.7 provide crucial insights into the respondents’ demographic and socio-economic profiles, their familiarity with SARS, and their direct or indirect encounters with the unit. The findings offer a diverse representation of respondents, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the impact of human rights violations by SARS officers and the effectiveness of the Nigerian government’s response to the allegations. The study’s results underscore the significance of considering these demographic factors when interpreting the findings and developing targeted and inclusive approaches to promote human rights protection and police reform in Nigeria.
Tables 4.8 to 4.15 present significant findings related to the respondents’ perceptions of the historical background and evolution of SARS, the expansion of its mandate, the impact of major incidents on the unit’s role, and the Nigerian government’s response to the allegations of human rights violations.
Table 4.8 explores the respondents’ perspectives on whether the establishment of SARS in 1992 was a necessary response to combat armed robbery. The data shows that 60.2% of participants agreed with the statement, while 17.6% were uncertain, and 22.2% disagreed. The relatively high percentage of the agreement indicates that a substantial portion of the respondents considers the establishment of SARS as a necessary measure to address armed robbery challenges in Nigeria. However, the presence of uncertainty and disagreement suggests that some respondents might question the unit’s effectiveness or express concerns about the human rights implications of its operations. This finding highlights the importance of acknowledging different perspectives on SARS’s establishment while analyzing its subsequent conduct and impact on human rights recognition.
Table 4.9 delves into the respondents’ perceptions of whether SARS significantly expanded its mandate beyond its original objective of tackling armed robbery. The data reveals that 72.2% of participants agreed with the statement, while 5.6% were uncertain, and 22.2% disagreed. The substantial agreement indicates that a significant majority of the respondents believe that SARS extended its mandate beyond its initial purpose, leading to concerns about potential mission creep and human rights abuses. The presence of uncertainty and disagreement suggests that some respondents might have limited awareness of the unit’s activities or hold differing views on the extent of its mandate expansion. This finding emphasizes the need for thorough research and public awareness to promote accountability and transparency in law enforcement practices.
Table 4.10 explores whether major incidents or events in Nigeria, such as civil unrest and protests, played a significant role in shaping the evolving role of SARS since its establishment. The data shows that 83.3% of participants agreed with the statement, while 16.7% disagreed. The high percentage of agreement suggests that many individuals believe that major incidents and protests have influenced the unit’s role over time. This finding underscores the dynamic nature of law enforcement practices in response to societal events and public demands, which can have significant implications for human rights protection and public trust in law enforcement agencies. The disagreement indicates that some respondents might attribute the unit’s role to other factors, highlighting the importance of considering various perspectives when analyzing the evolution of SARS.
In Table 4.11, respondents were asked about the influence of international pressure and human rights reports on the Nigerian government’s response to incidents or allegations involving SARS. The data shows that 71.3% of participants agreed with the statement, while 6.5% were uncertain, and 22.2% disagreed. The high percentage of agreement suggests that many individuals believe that international pressure and human rights reports have played a role in shaping the government’s response to SARS-related incidents. This finding highlights the significance of international human rights standards and the potential impact of external pressure on the Nigerian government’s actions concerning human rights abuses. The disagreement indicates that some respondents might perceive other factors or drivers of the government’s response, underscoring the need for comprehensive analyses that consider multiple influences.
Table 4.12 provides insights into whether respondents or someone they know have witnessed or experienced human rights violations by SARS officers. The data reveals that 88.0% of participants agreed with the statement, while 4.6% were uncertain, and 7.4% disagreed. The high percentage of agreement indicates a widespread acknowledgment of the prevalence of human rights violations by SARS officers among the respondents. This finding highlights the extent of the issue and the urgent need for effective measures to address these violations and promote accountability within the unit. The presence of uncertainty and disagreement suggests that some respondents might have limited personal experiences or may be unaware of such incidents, underlining the importance of raising awareness and ensuring comprehensive data collection to inform policy and reform efforts.
Table 4.13 delves into the types of human rights violations reported concerning SARS officers. The data shows that 77.8% of respondents agreed that the reported violations include extrajudicial killings, torture or physical abuse, unlawful arrests or detention, and extortion or bribery. The substantial agreement suggests that these types of violations are widely recognized and acknowledged among the respondents. This finding underscores the gravity of the reported violations and the need for urgent and comprehensive measures to address the multifaceted nature of human rights abuses within the unit. The presence of uncertainty and disagreement indicates varying levels of awareness or differing interpretations of the reported violations, emphasizing the importance of further research and efforts to document and address these abuses effectively.
Table 4.14 provides insights into the respondents’ perspectives on whether the reported cases of human rights violations by SARS are part of a broader pattern of misconduct rather than isolated incidents. The data shows that 79.6% of participants agreed with the statement, while 13.9% were uncertain, and 6.5% disagreed. The high percentage of agreement suggests that many individuals believe that the reported violations are not isolated incidents but rather indicative of a broader pattern of misconduct within the unit. This finding highlights the need for systemic reforms and comprehensive approaches to address the root causes of misconduct and promote accountability in law enforcement practices. The presence of uncertainty and disagreement indicates that some respondents might have different views on the extent of the reported misconduct, emphasizing the importance of conducting further investigations and research to gain a comprehensive understanding of the issue.
Table 4.15 explores the respondents’ perceptions of the Nigerian government’s response to addressing human rights violations by SARS from 1992 to 2020. The data shows that 80.6% of participants agreed that the government’s response has been ineffective, while 8.3% were uncertain, and 11.1% disagreed. The high percentage of agreement indicates a prevailing belief among respondents that the government’s efforts have not been effective in addressing the reported human rights violations. This finding highlights the need for stronger and more impactful measures to hold those responsible accountable and prevent further abuses within the unit. The presence of uncertainty and disagreement suggests that some respondents might have different assessments of the government’s response, emphasizing the importance of evaluating the effectiveness of the measures taken and identifying areas for improvement.
Overall, Tables 4.8 to 4.15 provide crucial insights into the respondents’ perceptions of various aspects related to the historical background, expansion of the mandate, impact of major incidents, and the Nigerian government’s response to human rights violations by SARS. These findings underscore the complexity and significance of addressing police misconduct and human rights abuses, as well as the need for comprehensive and sustained efforts to promote accountability, transparency, and respect for human rights in law enforcement practices in Nigeria. The study’s results emphasize the importance of ongoing research, open dialogue, and collaboration among policymakers, stakeholders, and civil society to develop and implement effective and sustainable reforms that prioritize human rights protection and foster public trust in law enforcement.
Table 4.16 presents the respondents’ perceptions of whether the Nigerian government took significant steps, such as disbanding SARS, establishing investigative panels, and implementing police reform initiatives, in response to the allegations of human rights violations by SARS. The data shows that 81.5% of participants agreed with the statement, while 10.2% were uncertain, and 8.3% disagreed. The high percentage of agreement suggests that a significant majority of respondents believe that the government took noteworthy actions to address the allegations. This finding highlights the recognition of the steps taken by the government, including the disbandment of SARS and the establishment of investigative panels, in response to the public outcry over human rights abuses. However, the presence of uncertainty and disagreement indicates that some respondents might hold reservations about the effectiveness or comprehensiveness of these measures. This finding emphasizes the importance of continuing efforts to evaluate the impact of these steps and identify further areas for improvement in police reform and human rights protection.
Table 4.17 explores whether the government’s response to the allegations adequately addressed the issue of human rights violations by SARS. The data shows that 75.0% of participants agreed with the statement, while 17.6% were uncertain, and 7.4% disagreed. The high percentage of agreement suggests that a substantial portion of respondents believe that the government’s response was insufficient in addressing the issue of human rights violations by SARS. This finding emphasizes the need for continued advocacy and reforms to ensure that law enforcement agencies are held accountable for their actions and to prevent further human rights abuses in the future. The presence of uncertainty and disagreement indicates that some respondents might have differing assessments of the government’s response, underscoring the importance of conducting further research to better understand public perceptions and expectations concerning police reform and human rights protection.
Table 4.18 provides insights into the respondents’ perceptions of whether there has been a significant improvement in the behavior and conduct of SARS officers since the government’s response to the allegations. The data shows that 70.4% of participants agreed with the statement, while 17.6% were uncertain, and 12.0% disagreed. The relatively high percentage of agreement suggests that many respondents believe that there has been a positive change in the behaviour and conduct of SARS officers following the government’s response. This finding could indicate some level of optimism regarding the impact of the government’s measures in curbing human rights violations and fostering accountability. However, the presence of uncertainty and disagreement indicates that some respondents might hold reservations or lack information about any observable improvements, emphasizing the need for comprehensive monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to assess the effectiveness of reforms.
Table 4.19 explores respondents’ perspectives on how to prevent future human rights violations by law enforcement agencies in Nigeria. The data shows that 84.3% of participants agreed that the Nigerian government should strengthen oversight and accountability mechanisms, implement comprehensive police reform, and enhance human rights training for law enforcement personnel. The high percentage of agreement indicates that a significant majority of respondents recognize the importance of a multifaceted approach to prevent future human rights violations. This finding emphasizes the need for comprehensive reforms that encompass not only accountability mechanisms but also wider systemic changes to promote a human rights-based approach to policing in Nigeria. The presence of uncertainty and disagreement suggests that some respondents might have different views on the most effective preventive measures, highlighting the importance of a collaborative and inclusive approach to address the complex issue of police misconduct and human rights abuses.
In summary, Tables 4.16 to 4.19 provide crucial insights into the respondents’ perceptions of the Nigerian government’s response to human rights violations by SARS and their views on preventing future violations. The findings underscore the significance of comprehensive police reforms, accountability mechanisms, and human rights training in law enforcement agencies to foster public trust and respect for human rights. The presence of uncertainty and disagreement highlights the need for ongoing research, public dialogue, and inclusive policymaking to address the challenges of police misconduct and human rights abuses effectively. These findings contribute to a broader understanding of the complexities of police reform and the importance of sustained efforts to promote human rights recognition and protection in Nigeria’s law enforcement system.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the results of the hypotheses tested in this study provide valuable insights into the historical background and evolution of the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) in Nigeria and its impact on human rights recognition and protection. The findings revealed that the establishment of SARS was not solely intended to address the increasing rate of armed robbery and serious crimes in Nigeria, but it has been marred by significant human rights violations. Moreover, the extent of these human rights violations was found to be non-significant, indicating a potential challenge in rebuilding public trust and confidence in the unit and the Nigerian policing system. However, the response of the Nigerian government and relevant authorities to the allegations of human rights violations by SARS was initially deemed adequate, with improvements observed over time.
These findings underscore the urgent need for comprehensive police reforms, strengthened oversight and accountability mechanisms, and enhanced human rights training for law enforcement personnel to address the identified shortcomings. The study contributes to the growing body of literature on policing and human rights recognition in Nigeria, shedding light on the complexities surrounding law enforcement agencies conduct and the importance of upholding human rights principles in their operations. Policymakers and stakeholders can use these findings as a basis for further reforms to enhance public safety, promote transparency, and foster a rights-based approach to law enforcement, ultimately leading to improved trust between citizens and law enforcement agencies. However, it is essential to acknowledge potential limitations in the study design and data collection process, and further research is encouraged to provide a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted challenges and potential solutions in addressing policing and human rights issues in Nigeria.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are suggested:
- Comprehensive Police Reforms: The Nigerian government should undertake comprehensive police reforms to address systemic issues and strengthen law enforcement agencies’ accountability. Reforms should focus on improving recruitment processes, training programs, and internal oversight mechanisms to promote professionalism, respect for human rights, and ethical conduct among police officers.
- Enhanced Human Rights Training: Law enforcement personnel, including those in SARS, should undergo regular and rigorous human rights training. This training should emphasize the importance of protecting and respecting human rights in all aspects of their duties, and it should equip them with the necessary skills to handle complex situations with adherence to human rights principles.
- Strengthened Oversight and Accountability Mechanisms: The government should establish independent oversight bodies with the power to investigate allegations of police misconduct and human rights violations. These bodies should have the authority to hold officers accountable for their actions, and their findings and recommendations should be transparently implemented.
- Public Participation in Policing: The Nigerian government should actively engage with civil society organizations and the public to solicit their input on policing strategies, policies, and reforms. Public consultations and community policing initiatives can help build trust between citizens and law enforcement agencies, fostering a collaborative approach to improving policing practices.
- Monitoring and Evaluation of Reforms: Continuous monitoring and evaluation of the implemented reforms are crucial to assess their effectiveness in addressing human rights violations and rebuilding public trust. Regular reviews should be conducted to identify areas of improvement and adjust policies and practices accordingly.
- Awareness and Sensitization Campaigns: The government should initiate public awareness campaigns to educate citizens about their rights and responsibilities during encounters with law enforcement officers. Similarly, awareness campaigns within law enforcement agencies can reinforce the importance of respecting human rights and maintaining professional conduct.
Contribution to Knowledge
The present study on “Policing and Human Rights Recognition in Nigeria: A Study of the Special Anti-Robbery Squad 1992-2020” contributes significantly to the existing knowledge in several ways. Firstly, the study sheds light on the historical background and evolution of the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) in Nigeria, providing a comprehensive understanding of its formation, mandate, and initial intentions behind its establishment. This historical analysis adds depth to the discourse surrounding SARS, allowing researchers and policymakers to comprehend the unit’s origins and its intended role in combating armed robbery and serious crimes in Nigeria. Moreover, the study identifies a significant gap between the intended objectives and the unit’s actual performance, which leads to human rights violations. This critical insight offers valuable lessons for policymakers and law enforcement agencies, highlighting the need to align the objectives of specialized police units with human rights principles to ensure effective and ethical crime control measures.
Secondly, the research findings provide empirical evidence of human rights violations perpetrated by SARS officers during the period from 1992 to 2020. The study carefully analyzes and categorizes the types of violations reported, such as extrajudicial killings, torture, unlawful arrests, and extortion, shedding light on the gravity and frequency of these abuses. By quantifying the extent of human rights violations, the study presents a compelling case for policy reforms aimed at ensuring greater accountability, transparency, and adherence to human rights standards within law enforcement agencies. These findings contribute to the body of knowledge on human rights advocacy and police reform, offering valuable insights for international human rights organizations, scholars, and policymakers to develop evidence-based strategies to address systemic issues and improve policing practices in Nigeria and other similar contexts globally. Overall, this research serves as a valuable resource for future studies and policymaking efforts aimed at promoting human rights recognition and protection within the Nigerian policing system and beyond.
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