Physiochemical Analysis of Stream Water and Bottle Water
Chapter One
Aim
The aim of this study was to carry out bacteriological and physicochemical qualityย assessment of bottled and stream water in Zaria, Kaduna State,ย Nigeria.
Objectivesย wereย to:
- Determine the bacteriological quality and physicochemical properties of bottled and stream water.
- Isolate and characterize Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Enterococcus spp in the water samples
- Determine the antibiotic susceptibility patterns of the isolates to commonly used antibiotics and screen for the presence of multiple antibiotic resistance
- Screen the Escherichia coli O157:H7 for the possession of extended spectrum ฮฒ-lactamasesย genesย (bla-CTX-Mย andย bla-TEM)ย andย virulenceย shigatoxinย genesย (Stx1ย and Stx2)ย usingย theย polymeraseย chain Reaction (PCR)
- Confirm Enterococcus using genus specific primer and detect the Vancomycin resistance gene (VANR) inย Enterococcusย isolated.
CHAPTERย TWO
ย LITERATUREย REVIEW
ย Physicochemicalย Qualityย ofย Drinkingย Water
A number of chemical contaminants have been shown to cause adverse healthย effectsย inย humansย asย aย consequenceย of prolongedย exposure throughย drinking-waterย (WHO, 2008; Dunn et al., 2014). There are many chemicals that may occur in drinking-ย water; however, only a few are of immediate health concern in any given circumstance,ย examples include fluoride, arsenic, lead, and nitrate (WHO, 2008). Exposure to highย levels of fluoride, which occurs naturally, can lead to mottling of teeth and, in severeย cases, crippling skeletal fluorosis. Similarly, arsenic may occur naturally, and excessย exposure to arsenic in drinking-water may result in a significant risk of cancer and skinย lesions. Iron and manganese are of widespread significance because of their effects onย acceptability.
Totalย Dissolvedย Solidsย (TDS)
Totalย Dissolvedย Solidsย (TDS)ย compriseย inorganicย salts,ย principally calcium,ย magnesium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates, and small amountsย ofย organic matter that are dissolved in waterย (Grayson etย al., 2012).
pH
The pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution and could also beย definedย asย theย negativeย ofย theย logarithmย toย theย baseย 10ย ofย theย hydrogenย ionย concentration (Sarker and Sathasivan, 2012).
- Electricalconductivityย (EC):ย Electricalย conductivityย isย aย functionย ofย ionsย concentration in a water sample. It is a measure of how much total salts are present inย theย ย Itย canย serve asย an indicatorย ofย waterย qualityย (Sarker andย Sathasivan, 2012).
Chlorineย andย chloride
Chlorideย inย drinking-waterย originatesย fromย naturalย sources,ย sewageย andย industrial effluents. Excessive chloride concentrations increase rates of corrosion ofย metals in the distribution system, depending onย the alkalinity of the waterย (WHO,ย 2008). This can lead to increased concentrations of metals in the supply. In water,ย chlorine reacts to form hypochlorous acid and hypochlorites. However, it is normalย practice to supply water with a chlorine residual of a few tenths of a milligram per litreย to act as aย preservative onlyย duringย distribution.
Nitrateย andย nitrite
The nitrate concentration in groundwater and surface water is normally low but can reach high levels as a result of leaching or runoff from agricultural land or contamination from human or animal wastes as a consequence of the oxidation of ammonia and similar sources (WHO, 2008). Toxicologically, the primary health concern regarding nitrate and nitrite is the formation of methaemoglobinaemia, so- called โblue-baby syndrome.โ Nitrate is reduced to nitrite in the stomach of infants, and nitrite is able to oxidize haemoglobin (Hb) to methaemoglobin (metHb), which is unable to transport oxygen around the body. The reduced oxygen transport becomes clinically manifest when metHb concentrations reach 10% or more of normal Hb concentrations; the condition, called methaemoglobinaemia, causes cyanosis and, at higher concentrations, asphyxia (WHO, 2008).
Heavyย metals
Heavy metals could be defined as elements with atomic number greater than 22 and a density greater than 5g/ml (Tewari and Vivekanand, 2013).
Sources of Heavy metal contamination in water include discharge from industrial by-products such as fertilizer production plants and mining activities (Tewari and Vivekanand, 2013).
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Cadmium
Cadmiumย isย releasedย toย theย environmentย throughย wastewater,ย andย diffuseย pollutionย isย causedย byย contaminationย fromย fertilizersย andย localย airย pollution.ย Contaminationย inย drinking-waterย mayย alsoย beย causedย byย impuritiesย inย theย zincย ofย galvanized pipes and solders and some metal fittings (Kumar, 2012). Toxicologically,ย Cadmium accumulates primarily in the kidneys and has a long biological half-life (10โย 35ย years)ย in humansย (Kumar, 2012).
Lead
Leadย isย toxicย toย theย centralย andย peripheralย nervousย systems,ย inducingย subencephalopathic neurological and behavioural effects. There is electrophysiologicalย evidence of effects on the nervous system in children with blood lead levels well belowย 30mg/dl (WHO, 2003). The intake of lead from drinking-water constitutes a greaterย proportionย of total leadย (Pb)ย intakeย (‘Waterย meters meet lead-freeย rules’,ย 2011).
Iron
Iron is one of the most abundant metals in the Earthโs crust. It is found in naturalย fresh waters at levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 mg/litre (Allred, 2011). Iron may also beย present in drinking-water as a result of the use of iron coagulants or the corrosion ofย steel and cast iron pipes during water distribution. Iron is an essential element in humanย nutrition.
Chromium
Chromium is widely distributed in the Earthโs crust. It can exist in valences of +2ย to +6.ย Inย general, food appears toย beย theย majorย sourceย of intake (He et al., 2014). Theย Provisionalย guideline valueย is 0.05 mg/litreย forย total chromium (WHO, 2008).
CHAPTERย THREE
MATERIALSย ANDย METHODS.
Samplingย Sites
Five sampling sites were selected in Zaria for this study. These sites include; Samaru ,ย Wusasa, Tudunwada , Zaria city and Sabongari. The map of Zaria is shown in Figureย 3.1.
- Study Design:ย Thisย studyย was aย cross-sectional
- Sample Size:ย Theย sampleย sizeย for thisย studyย wasย determinedย usingย theย followingย formulaย as described byย (Naing et al., 2006).
CHAPTERย FOUR
RESULTS
Physicochemical Properties of the Bottled and stream waterย in Zaria, Kaduna State,ย Nigeria.
Table 4.1 shows the mean physicochemical properties of the well water samplesย from the five sampling sites, Samaru (W1), Tudun-wada (W2), Wusasa (W3), Zaria cityย (W4), and Sabon-gari (W5). The result shows that there was no significant difference inย pH of the well water samples collected from the different sampling sites. However, theย pH of all the well water samples were bellow the (6.5-8.5) recommended limits ofย NAFDACย exceptย samplingย siteย W4ย withย aย meanย ยฑSEย valueย ofย 6.55ยฑ0.14.ย Theย resultย alsoย revealedย thatย thereย wereย significantย differencesย inย turbidityย ofย theย wellย waterย samplesย collectedย fromย theย differentย samplingย sites.ย Theseย differencesย inย orderย ofย increasing turbidity were W3หW1หW5หW2หW4. However, the turbidity of the wellย waterย samplesย fromย samplingย sitesย W2,ย W4,ย andย W5ย withย meanย ยฑSEย valuesย ofย 8.32ยฑ0.12NTU, 13.87ยฑ0.22NTU, and 6.95ยฑ0.01NTU were above the permissible limitย (โค5NTU)ย ofย NAFDAC.
CHAPTERย FIVE
SUMMARY,ย CONCLUSIONย ANDย RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The results obtained in this study showed that the borehole, well, sachet- bottled and bottled waters in Zaria are of variable physicochemical quality. However, turbidity (60%), total dissolved solids (40%), and electrical conductivity (40%) of the well water sampled were above the minimum recommended standard by NAFDAC and WHO while nitrate (100%) of all the well water sampled were above the USEPA recommended minimum contamination limits. This is critical because Infants below the age of six months who drink water containing nitrate in excess of the maximum contaminant level could become seriously ill and, if untreated, may die of blue-baby syndrome (Methaemoglobinemia). Also, the pH of (80%) of the sampled well water were below the recommended range (6.5-8.5) of NAFDAC and WHO. In the borehole water sampled, the pH of five (100%) sampled sites were below the standard recommended range (6.5-8.5) of NAFDAC and WHO. nitrate levels in (40%) of the sampled borehole water were above the minimum contamination level (10mg/l) of USEPA. There was no significant difference between the pH value of the borehole water (5.93) and well water (6.18) in Zaria. Also, there was no significant difference in the turbidity and alkalinity values of the borehole water and sachet-bottled drinking water. The sachet-bottled and bottled water brands sampled in this study were of good physicochemical qualities since values were within the acceptable limits set by NAFDAC. There was no significant difference between the physicochemical parameters in borehole likewise sachet-bottled water during the wet and dry season except phosphate of the sachet-bottled water with higher mean value during the dryย season. In the well water, significant difference was recorded in the dissolved oxygen,ย temperature and phosphate where the dry season recorded the highest values. In theย borehole and well water samples analysed, the Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), and Iron (Fe)ย contents of the various sampling sites in Zaria were above the minimum contaminationย levels set by NAFDAC. All the sachet-bottled water sampled recorded high levels ofย Cadmiumย (Cd)ย andย Leadย (Pb)ย whichย wereย aboveย theย minimumย permissibleย limitsย established by NAFDAC. In the bottled water brands, Lead was not detected in all theย five brands sampled. The Cadmium content of well water, borehole water and sachet-ย bottledย waterย wereย notย statistically significantly different.ย However,ย thereย wasย aย significantย differenceย inย theย Leadย (Pb)ย andย Ironย acrossย differentย waterย typesย studied.
Results of the bacteriological quality assessment obtained in this study showedย that total coliform and Escherichia coli was detected in (80%) of the brands of sachet-ย bottledย waterย andย (20%)ย inย theย bottledย waterย brands.ย Faecalย coliformย andย thermotholerantย Escherichia coli was detected in eight (80%) of the sachet drinkingย water but however not detected in all the brands of the bottled water investigated.ย Allย theย boreholeย andย wellย watersย sampledย fromย fiveย differentย samplingย sitesย wereย contaminated with total coliform, faecal coliform, thermotolerant Escherichia coli andย enterococciย exceptย inย veryย fewย occasions.ย Thereย wereย noย statisticallyย significantย differences between the total coliform counts of the sachet water and borehole water inย Zaria. However, the sachet-bottled water was found to be more contaminated withย total coliform, faecal coliform and Escherichia coli. Therefore, the borehole water was of relatively better microbiological quality than the sachet-bottled water sold in Zaria. Higher bacteriological counts were recorded during the wet season than in the dry season across all sample types. Ciprofloxacin (100%), Gentamicin (90%) and Chloramphenicolย (90%)ย wereย theย mostย activeย antibioticsย againstย Escherichiaย coliย O157:H7 isolates in this study. There was high level resistance of Escherichia coliย O157:H7ย (80%) andย Enterococcusย sppย (37.6%)ย toย commonly used antibioticsย withย MAR indices of 0.3 and above. Rapid detection of Enterococcus was carried out usingย the genus specific primer ENT1 which showed amplification of the expected 112bp tufย geneย throughย theย PCRย technique.ย VANRย geneย wasย notย detectedย inย Enterococcus.ย Although, 4(25%) of the Enterococcus exhibited phenotypic resistance to Vancomycin.ย Thisย providesย furtherย indicationย ofย theย emergenceย ofย Vancomycinย resistanceย Enterococcus in the environment. the Stx1 and Stx2 genes from the Escherichia coliย O157:H7 could not be detected in this study however, Multidrug resistance Escherichiaย coliย O157:H7ย isolatesย wereย confirmedย withย primerย amplificationย ofย theย extendedย spectrum ฮฒ-lactamase genes; (bla-CTX-M and bla TEM-1) which codes for multidrugย resistances penicillins, cephalosporins and carbapenems. This is an emerging challengeย andย aย confirmation ofย multidrugย resistantย bacteriaย in stream waterย inย Zaria.
ย Conclusion
The nitrate level in samples of the wells (100%) and borehole (40%) water were aboveย the United States environmental protection agency (USEPA) minimum contaminationย level of 10mg/l. Cadmium (Cd) and Lead (Pb) contents of boreholes, wells, and brandsย ofย sachetย watersย wereย aboveย theย minimumย permissibleย limitsย setย byย NAFDACย (0.003mg/l and 0.01mg/l respectively). However, Lead (Pb) was not detected in theย bottled water brands sampled. Total coliforms and Escherichia coli were detected in sachet water brands (80%), bottled water brands (20%), borehole (100%) and well water (100%). Enterococci were recovered from sachet water brands (70%), borehole (100%) and well water (100%). There were no statistically significant differences (Pโค0.05) between the total coliform counts of the sachet water brands and borehole water in Zaria, therefore, the purity of sachet water as claimed by the manufacturers isย doubtful. Bacteriological counts were higher during the wet season than dry season.ย Antibiogramย ofย Escherichiaย coliย O157:H7ย (80%)ย andย Enterococcusย sppย (37.6%)ย isolates showed multiple antibiotics resistance (MAR) with MAR indices of 0.3 andย above. Polymeraseย chainย reaction (PCR) amplified some housekeeping genes such asย tuf gene of Enterococcus genus and antibiotics resistance genes such as glycopeptidesย Vancomycinย andย teicoplaninย resistanceย geneย VANR.ย Escherichiaย coliย O157:H7ย extended spectrum ฮฒ-lactamase genes: bla-TEM and bla-CTX-M genes. Most of theย sachetย water brands fellย below NAFDAC and WHOย drinkingย waterย standards
Recommendation
Theย Nationalย Agencyย forย Foodย andย Drugย Administrationย andย Controlย (NAFDAC) should intensify efforts in the routine monitoring of activities in theย bottled drinking water industry. Testing of market samples will be a good wayย ofย detectingย ifย theย waterย isย actuallyย pureย asย claimedย byย theseย producingย companies.
It is advisable that Well water, shallow contaminated boreholes and municipalย tap water should beย avoided as sources ofย raw water forย the productionย ofย bottled drinking. Ground waters such as boreholes when properly constructedย andย maintainedย provideย aย relativelyย saferย sourceย ofย rawย waterย inย termsย ofย microbial load compared to unprotected water sources such as river, spring andย wellย waters.
Appropriate treatment processes should be utilised for production of quality and safe bottled drinking waters while regulatory agencies should stipulate adequate sanitation and hygienic practices as a condition for routine recertification of bottled water producers in Nigeria.
- Receptacles for drawing water from open wells should be kept clean and permanently attached to a windlass when not in use; Well lids must be kept dry and clean and should be constructed as a single unit. Wells should be sited at higher elevations so as not to serve as a sink during rainfall; Wells should be sited at least 30 m away from septic tanks, latrines and rubbish dumps; access to wells and boreholes by domestic and grazing animals should be restricted by
- Legal framework shouldbe put in place at theย national level to put stringentย laws to regulate the citing of wells and boreholes, as findings from this studyย corroborate observations of Erah et al. (2002) that indiscriminate sinking of boreholes and wells without proper geological surveys contributes to the presence of faecal coliform in underground water.
- Enactment of appropriate legislations to regulate the handling and disposal of e-waste and lead accumulators by battery chargers in order to control pollution ofย theย environment byย leadย wastes is likewise
- The local mass media should disseminate information on the need for a more careful handling and disposal of materials that contain heavy metals such as lead especially lead paints.
- Intensive education of the Nigerian population on correct treatment procedures of water for domestic use should be done on the electronic media especially TV and radio on continual basis.
- It is recommended here that mothers should practice six months exclusive breastfeeding of babys to avoid babys from being exposed to the intake of contaminated water with high nitrate levels which could cause blue baby syndrome (Methaemoglobinaemia).
- Itisย alsoย recommendedย hereย thatย chlorinatingย agentsย beย providedย byย theย government at heavily subsidized prices to trained personnel to assist in theย eliminationย ofย pathogenicย microorganismsย inย theย untreatedย water
- Most importantly, the government at all levels in Nigeria should also be admonished and take the issue of supply of adequately treated water to the public as an essential public.
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