International Security and Global Terrorism in the 21st Century: A Case Study of Burkina Faso
Chapter One
Aims and Objectives of the Study
This study discusses international security and global terrorism in the 21st century, with Burkina.
Faso’s recent terrorist acts as a focus. Its major aim is to delve into the dynamics of terrorism in Burkina Faso and its broader implications for global security. The specific objectives are to:
- investigate the evolving patterns of global terrorism in the 21st century and within Burkina Faso over the past two decades.
- Explore the fundamental factors that make terrorism persist in certain regions, like Burkina Faso, while encountering limited success in others, like Togo.
- investigate collaborative efforts among neighbouring countries, regional organizations, and international partners in combating terrorism in the Sahel region and globally.
- examine the effectiveness of counterterrorism policies and actions by Burkina Faso and international communities.
- identify vulnerabilities in security systems and policies that terrorists exploit, leading to actionable recommendations.
- suggest practical measures to enhance international security and combat global terrorism.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The conceptual framework outlines the relationships between key concepts and hypotheses in this research study.
This section synthesizes research conducted from 2000 to the present on international security and global terrorism, providing an overview of key themes, findings, and gaps. It reviews how the concepts of security and terrorism have evolved over the past two decades and examines the specific context of Burkina Faso about these developments.
CONCEPT OF SECURITY
Since 2000, the concept of security has expanded beyond traditional state-centric views to include broader concerns such as human security and environmental threats. Scholars have increasingly emphasized the importance of non-traditional security threats, including pandemics and climate change, reflecting the changing nature of global risks.
CONCEPT OF INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
International security in the 21st century addresses both state and non-state threats. The rise of global terrorism has necessitated new approaches to international security, including increased cooperation between states, international organizations, and non-governmental actors. Key developments include the establishment of new international frameworks for counterterrorism and enhanced intelligence-sharing mechanisms.
International Security refers to the measures taken by states and international organizations, such as the United Nations, to ensure mutual survival and safety. Traditionally, international security was viewed through the lens of military power and state sovereignty. However, the emergence of non-state actors like terrorist groups has expanded the scope of international security to include counterterrorism efforts, humanitarian responses, and global cooperation in intelligence and law enforcement.
CONCEPT OF TERRORISM
Terrorism is not a new phenomenon, though it has become more prevalent in parts of the world where formerly it was rare (Oksana, 2006). It is a phenomenon to be described as a political way of fighting, including state terrorism or actions by liberation movements, without assessing them in political or ethical terms (Oksana, 2006).
Since 2000, terrorism has been characterized by its transnational nature and the use of technology to further extremist agendas. The literature highlights the diversification of terrorist tactics and the rise of decentralized networks. Research has focused on the motivations behind terrorism, including political, ideological, and socio-economic factors.
Terrorism concerns the use of murder and destruction and treat of murder and destruction because one way for terrorists to achieve they demand to terrorize all individuals and governments. Even though there is no agreed-upon detailed definition for terrorism, as to its character or type of operation, most experts agree that the element of fear is important to the determination of that phenomenon. Additional characteristics of the terrorist groups are ruthlessness, disregard for established humanitarian values, and a limitless quest for publicity through the mass media.
CONCEPT OF GLOBAL TERRORISM
Global terrorism has evolved to involve increasingly sophisticated and coordinated attacks by transnational networks. The literature from this period documents the rise of groups such as AlQaeda and ISIS, their global influence, and the impact of their activities on international security. The shift from state-centric to networked forms of terrorism has reshaped global counterterrorism strategies. Global Terrorism, on the other hand, is the use of violence and intimidation by non-state actors to achieve political, religious, or ideological objectives, often targeting civilians. Terrorist groups such as Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State (ISIS), and regional affiliates in Africa have become major players in destabilizing regions and challenging the capacity of national governments to maintain order. The global nature of terrorism means that threats often transcend national borders, requiring coordinated international responses.
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter outlines the methodology used to investigate international security and global terrorism in the 21st century using Burkina Faso as case study. This chapter focus is on the research design, target population, sample, sampling techniques, sources of data, and data collection procedures used in obtaining the required data.
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design embraces the methodology and procedures employed to conduct scientific research. According to Simon (2021) and Beaumont (2009), a research design was described as a plan that describes how, when and where data are to be collected and analyzed. In other words, the research design articulates what data is required, what methods are going to be used to collect and analyze the data, and how all of these are going to answer the research questions.
This research adopts a mixed method design, combining qualitative case studies with quantitative data analysis. The quantitative approach involves: case studies (recent terrorist attacks, measures of international security taken etc.), and interviews. The quantitative approach involves: data collection (gathering data on terrorism incidents from global database e.g. the Global Terrorism Database(GTD) and organizational reports like United Nations).
CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
This chapter focuses on analyzing and discussing the findings from the case study of Burkina Faso to provide insights into the dynamics of international security and global terrorism in the 21st century. The study aims to explore the root causes, impacts, and responses to terrorism, linking them to broader global trends. Using a mixed-methods approach, the analysis integrates thematic analysis of qualitative data (interviews and case studies) with descriptive statistical analysis of quantitative data (e.g., Global Terrorism Database). This combination ensures a comprehensive understanding by identifying patterns, themes, and trends, enabling a nuanced discussion of terrorism’s complexities and security challenges.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of Findings
The analysis of terrorism and security in Burkina Faso, as explored through both qualitative and quantitative data, has provided valuable insights into the factors driving terrorism in the region and the implications for both national and international security. The research adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data from sources like the Global Terrorism Database (GTD) and qualitative data from interviews and case studies to offer a comprehensive understanding of the issue.
From the quantitative analysis, key patterns in terrorist activities in Burkina Faso were observed. The period from 2004 to the present shows an upward trend in the number of terrorist incidents, particularly from 2015 onwards. This surge coincides with the political transition in Burkina Faso after the fall of Blaise Compaoré, which led to a security vacuum, especially in the northern and border regions near Mali. The analysis highlighted that terrorist groups, including local extremists and affiliates of international organizations such as Al-Qaeda, have targeted both civilians and state institutions. The data showed that the most frequent forms of attacks were ambushes, bombings, and armed assaults, with schools and religious institutions being common targets. The frequency of attacks has escalated, with notable peaks between 2018 and 2020. Additionally, the majority of the attacks occurred in regions with limited state presence, underscoring the role of weak governance and the inability of the government to secure these areas effectively.
The thematic analysis of qualitative data further illuminated the complexity of terrorism in Burkina Faso. Interviews with local residents, security experts, and government officials revealed that political instability, weak governance, and socio-economic conditions are major contributing factors to the rise in terrorism. The collapse of state authority in certain areas allowed terrorist groups to exploit historical grievances and the lack of economic opportunities. In particular, participants highlighted the vulnerability of youth in rural areas, who, faced with poverty and limited educational prospects, were increasingly susceptible to extremist ideologies. Additionally, religious extremism, though not universally supported, has gained traction in some communities, with terrorist groups presenting themselves as the solution to political and social discontent.
Furthermore, the impact of terrorism on Burkina Faso’s social, political, and economic structures has been profound. The closure of thousands of schools, the displacement of over a million people, and the disruption of economic activities have significantly strained the country’s resources and hindered development. The humanitarian crisis resulting from the conflict has escalated, with refugees fleeing to neighboring countries such as Mali, further complicating regional security dynamics. The long-term effects on social cohesion and national stability are also concerning, with increased fear, mistrust, and division among different ethnic and religious groups. The loss of life, particularly among civilians, underscores the severity of the threat posed by terrorism in Burkina Faso and its repercussions for the wider Sahel region.
In terms of responses, the analysis revealed mixed results regarding the effectiveness of national and international efforts to combat terrorism. The establishment of regional security initiatives, such as the G5 Sahel Joint Military Force, and the involvement of international actors like France through Operation Barkhane, were seen as necessary but insufficient to address the root causes of terrorism. Many interviewees noted that while these operations have had some success in reducing terrorist activity in certain areas, they have also led to an increase in anti-French sentiment and have failed to address underlying issues like poverty, inequality, and governance. The limited success of these interventions highlights the need for a more holistic approach that combines military actions with sustainable development, political reform, and community engagement.
Implications of the Findings
The findings of this study on terrorism and security in Burkina Faso carry significant implications for both national security strategies and the broader understanding of terrorism in the Sahel region. The combination of quantitative and qualitative data highlights several key areas where interventions can be adjusted or strengthened to address the growing security threat.
First, the research underscores the critical role of weak governance and socio-economic conditions in fueling terrorism. The findings suggest that regions with minimal state presence are more vulnerable to extremist activities. Terrorist groups often exploit the lack of state authority, historical grievances, and socio-economic inequality to recruit members, especially among the youth in rural areas. This highlights the importance of strengthening governance structures at the local level and ensuring that state institutions can provide basic services, such as education, healthcare, and security. A lack of opportunities, particularly in rural and marginalized communities, further exacerbates the issue, pushing individuals towards extremist ideologies as an outlet for their frustrations. This finding calls for a multi-faceted approach that addresses governance, economic development, and social inclusion, rather than focusing solely on military solutions.
The humanitarian impact of terrorism in Burkina Faso, as evidenced by the massive displacement of civilians and the closure of schools, also has serious implications for the country’s long-term stability. The disruption of education and the displacement of over a million people have not only created a humanitarian crisis but have also undermined the country’s ability to develop its human capital. Education, which is essential for long-term development, has been severely hindered by terrorist attacks targeting schools and educators. As displaced populations continue to seek refuge in neighboring countries like Mali, the regional implications are clear, and addressing the root causes of terrorism will require a regional and collaborative approach.
From an international security perspective, the research points to the need for more integrated and sustainable counter-terrorism strategies. While military operations like the G5 Sahel Joint Military Force and France’s Operation Barkhane have been important in reducing terrorist activities in some areas, they have been insufficient in addressing the structural causes of terrorism. The study’s findings suggest that focusing solely on military interventions without simultaneously addressing governance, poverty, and local grievances may lead to temporary reductions in violence, but it will not achieve lasting peace. International actors and governments need to rethink their approach, focusing on comprehensive development strategies that promote social cohesion, political reform, and economic opportunity alongside security measures.
Moreover, the findings from both the quantitative and qualitative analyses stress the importance of understanding the local dynamics of terrorism in Burkina Faso. The rising threat is not simply a manifestation of global terrorist movements but is intricately linked to local socio-political and economic conditions. The need for policies that engage local communities and address the specific grievances of affected populations is critical. In addition, regional cooperation among neighboring countries is essential to prevent the spillover of violence, with shared intelligence and coordinated responses offering the best chance for containment and stability in the Sahel region.
Conclusion
Based on the analysis of the hypotheses tested, the findings suggest that vulnerability factors such as weak governance, historical grievances, and socio-economic conditions are indeed positively associated with the incidence of terrorism in Burkina Faso. While the data did not provide statistical significance in the traditional sense, the qualitative analysis strongly supports the argument that these factors play a critical role in fostering an environment conducive to terrorism.
The study revealed that areas with weak state presence and poor governance structures are more susceptible to terrorist activities. Historical grievances, particularly those related to marginalization and ethnic tensions, have also been exploited by terrorist groups to recruit individuals and gain support. Furthermore, socio-economic disparities, including poverty and unemployment, provide fertile ground for the radicalization of vulnerable populations, particularly the youth. These findings align with the theoretical framework established in the literature, which suggests that terrorism is often rooted in political, economic, and social vulnerabilities.
Additionally, the impact of terrorism on Burkina Faso’s social and economic structures—such as school closures, displacement of over a million people, and loss of economic opportunities—further underscores the importance of addressing these vulnerability factors. These conditions not only fuel terrorism but also contribute to the destabilization of the region, with long-term implications for national and regional security.
In conclusion, the findings confirm the hypothesis that vulnerability factors are indeed positively associated with the incidence of terrorism in Burkina Faso. While military interventions and international cooperation have played a role in countering terrorism, a more comprehensive approach is needed. This includes strengthening governance, improving socio-economic conditions, and addressing historical grievances to reduce the appeal of extremist ideologies and ensure long-term stability in the region. The results emphasize the importance of a holistic approach to counter-terrorism that goes beyond security measures alone.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to address the underlying factors contributing to terrorism in Burkina Faso:
- Strengthening Governance and State Presence: One of the primary drivers of terrorism in Burkina Faso is weak governance, particularly in remote and rural areas. To counter this, the government should prioritize strengthening its institutions and enhancing its presence in areas most affected by terrorism. This includes investing in local law enforcement, judicial systems, and civil infrastructure to build trust between the government and its citizens. Decentralization of governance could also help address local grievances more effectively and foster a sense of security and inclusion among marginalized communities.
- Addressing Socio-Economic Inequality: Socio-economic disparities, including poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to education, were identified as significant factors contributing to the rise of terrorism. To mitigate these conditions, the government, with support from international partners, should invest in job creation, skills training, and education programs, particularly in regions vulnerable to terrorism. Economic development programs should focus on reducing inequality and providing sustainable livelihoods to youth, who are often the most susceptible to radicalization.
- Fostering Social Cohesion and Reconciliation: Historical grievances and ethnic tensions have played a role in fueling terrorism in Burkina Faso. Efforts to foster social cohesion and reconciliation are critical in addressing these issues. Initiatives aimed at promoting inter-ethnic dialogue, community-building, and national unity should be prioritized. This could include peacebuilding programs, local conflict resolution initiatives, and support for the return of displaced populations in a manner that promotes social harmony.
- Enhancing Regional and International Cooperation: Given the transnational nature of terrorism in the Sahel region, Burkina Faso should continue to strengthen cooperation with regional and international partners. This includes participating in and enhancing the effectiveness of initiatives like the G5 Sahel Joint Military Force and the “Partnership for Security and Stability in the Sahel” (P3S). Improved intelligence-sharing, coordinated military efforts, and cross-border security collaboration will be key to dismantling terrorist networks operating in the region.
- Promoting Comprehensive Counter-Terrorism Strategies: Finally, it is important to recognize that addressing terrorism requires a multi-faceted approach. Military intervention alone is insufficient to eliminate the root causes of terrorism. A comprehensive counter-terrorism strategy should combine security measures with socio-political reforms, economic development, and deradicalization efforts. This strategy must be inclusive, focusing on both immediate security concerns and long-term measures to address the socio-economic and political conditions that foster terrorism.
Contribution to Knowledge
This research contributes significantly to the existing body of knowledge on international security and terrorism, particularly in the context of Burkina Faso. By examining the relationship between vulnerability factors, such as weak governance, historical grievances, and socio-economic conditions, and the incidence of terrorism in the country, this study offers new insights into the root causes of terrorism within the West African Sahel region. The findings highlight the critical role of socio-political instability and socio-economic inequality as key drivers of terrorism, providing a deeper understanding of the factors that fuel extremism in this specific context. The study’s integration of both qualitative and quantitative methods strengthens the validity of the findings and offers a more comprehensive view of the issue than single-method approaches.
Furthermore, this research extends theoretical discussions on the causes of terrorism, specifically the role of identity-based factors, economic deprivation, and political oppression. The exploration of how vulnerability factors intersect to create an environment conducive to terrorism provides valuable insights for policymakers and scholars. It challenges the simplistic view that terrorism is only a result of ideological extremism and highlights the complex interplay of governance, economic conditions, and historical grievances. This nuanced understanding of the causes of terrorism contributes to broader theoretical frameworks on terrorism, especially in regions where governance structures are weak and socio-economic conditions are strained.
Finally, the study contributes to the growing discourse on counter-terrorism strategies and security policy in the Sahel region. By analyzing the effectiveness of various international and regional interventions in Burkina Faso, the research adds to the literature on the limitations and potential for improvement of current counter-terrorism approaches. The findings suggest that military intervention alone is insufficient in addressing the root causes of terrorism and advocate for a more holistic approach that combines security measures with socio-economic and political reforms. This contributes to a deeper understanding of how to effectively combat terrorism in conflict-prone regions and informs the development of more effective, multifaceted counter-terrorism strategies.
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