Conflict Management in Africa the Role of the Civil Society
CHAPTER ONE
Objective Of Study
Under the authoritative methods of conflict resolution is the decision of a court. Under this, a judge or jury decide a solution to a conflict based on evidence supplied by attorneys representing both conflicting sides of the issue. The judge or jury then interpret the law and use it as a basis for their decision which both parities will be forced to respect, the jury is composed of either laymen or professional judges. First, under the alternative methods of conflict resolution is facilitation.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
Conflicts are products of social structure and character of society of which the civil society is an integral part. This raises the issue about the role of the civil society in conflict processes, in terms of its emergence, management, and resolution. Threats to African security remain manifold, and differ significantly by sub-region. The end of the Cold War has impacted African security in a variety of ways: the incidence of inter-state conflict has receded markedly. It is characteristic of conflicts that violent confrontation involves state and non-state actors, and that it spills across borders. Nigeria has been characterized by recurrent violent conflict over scarce resources and land, especially in the country‘s arid northern regions bordering Somalia and in the Rift Valley. These conflicts have been fuelled by a mix of politics and ethnicity in recent years. In early 2005, the UN supported the government and civil society in developing and launching a programme on ‗Strengthening National Capacities for Conflict Prevention and Conflict Transformation in Nigeria‘. This programme force government, civil society, UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), and donors. The Nigerian government has invested significant resources and staff in the work of the NSC, making conflict management a top national priority. In Africa, an increasingly vibrant civil society has been strongly involved in peacemaking and Peace building activities. Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) in various regional and international initiatives stress their relevance and growing importance to on-going peace building efforts, for example in Kenya and Uganda. While many challenges to CSOs in the region persist, progress has been made in a number of countries. For example; In Rwanda and Burundi, women‘s organizations are at the forefront of the reconciliation and integration efforts, an aspect demonstrated in their Post Genocide Activities. The churches have sought to construct a viable and hospitable post-conflict environment through humanitarian intervention during and after the genocide. They were also centrally involved in promoting integration and assuaging the distressed population. Women‘s groups have mostly been in the forefront of demobilization and reintegration of former combatants in Burundi. An All-Party Burundi Women’s Conference in 2000 confronted issues such as gender based violence and focused on Peace building actors in their responsibilities to protect women and children in conflict situations. The conference discussed women’s rights, sex discrimination, and women’s participation in political life. The Coalition of Women’s Organizations and NGOs (CAFOB) also agitated positively to be represented in the male-dominated negotiations at Arusha. The concerted efforts of Ugandan CSOs as both pressure and opposition groups were instrumental in the government‘s agreement to return to a multiparty political system by 2006. Between 1985 and 1995, civil society actively engaged government in demanding democratic reforms, which eventually led to the freeing of political space. Civic and human rights education programs by CSOs, especially in the constitution-making process, helped create higher levels of awareness among Uganda people about their civic and political rights. CSOs in Uganda were at the forefront of exposing human rights violations and advocating for a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the north. Through their lobbying, government offered amnesty to the Lord‘s Resistance Army (LRA) leaders in 1998 and 1999 – although the amnesty law was amended in 2003 to exclude the LRA leader, Joseph Kony, which subsequently led to considerable reversals in the mediation process. The Church of Uganda and the Uganda Joint Christian Council were particularly instrumental in the peacemaking efforts.
CHAPTER THREE
A HISTORICAL SURVEY OF ETHNIC CONFLICT IN NIGERIA
The origin and history of ethnic conflict (societal wars and violence) can be traced from eternal (internal) state rivalry to external (physical). And its root cause is not very far from power competition and decision making over economic resources and other important human factor, like position. The implementation process has always involved more than one or two persons. In general concept, the author of this work traces conflict back to the first and early Patriarchal of human history and ever since then, there has been an increase (in various dimensions) of Conflict in the face of human world. Some are personal (internal) conflict, family, community, group, intellectual, state, national and international in nature, to mention but few. In conforming to this idea, Badawi (2006) in his statement titled “World Apart” stated thus, “indeed the greatest discord today is among the descendants of Abraham. These are the people of the book, the followers of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, who had in fact shared a common beginning in the religion of Abraham”. In shading more light in the above statement, Badawi statement goes far beyond religion, rather, he was tracing one of the earliest source of conflict which Badawi mentioned the off-springs of the said Abraham. Even before Abraham, there had been conflict, so it is as old as human history down to the Abrahamic period, to ancient kingdoms, Dukes, and Kings. In about 88 B. C., King Mithriadates VI of Pontus invaded Roman territory in Asian Minor. He advised Asian debtors to kill their Roman creditors. Happy to reduce their credit card bills, the Asians massacred 80,000 Romans. Ethno-political conflicts have greatly shaped our present world and of course have its structural phenomenon, (William Easterly, 2001). For instances, the conflict we now call Israeli and Palestinian war, has been an ever-lengthening sort. The Assyrian, Babylonian war, by King Nebuchadnezzar of the hanging Garden in history, the Persia war, Alexander the Great (the Macedonian mad man in history), the German war of Adolf’s Hitler, the Roman wars, narrowing all these down, we came to the horn of African continent which seem to be an epidemic field of conflicts of diverse kinds till date. The giant-lion of African continent, just like the origin of conflict is said to have stated very old in human history, even so in the case of Nigeria, which can be traced to the colonial period of history. Conflict takes different sizes and shapes with diverse reasons and purposes. Majority of the conflicts takes time before their escalation and at such, could have been transformed right at their respective early stages.
CHAPTER FOUR
POLITICS, POLITICIAN’S AND ETHNIC CONFLICT
While the politicians tried to cope with the colonial legacy that lumped incompatible ethnic groups together into one country, the military elites staged coups, making a mockery of democracy in Africa’s most populous and promising country. The corruption, ineptitude and confusion that marked the military era plunged Nigeria into economic problems, poverty, and ethno-religious conflicts until the 1990s. In Nigeria, where politics still follow ethnic lines, there is always disagreement about the rules of the game. The military intervened because they viewed the civilian leaders as inept and indecisive. However, the southerners distrusted the military regime because they felt it was trying to maintain Hausa-Fulani hegemony in Nigeria. On June 12, 1993, Chief Moshood Abiola, a Yoruba from southwestern Nigeria, won Nigeria’s presidential election, but his presidency was annulled by the military regime. In retaliation, southern Nigerians began to form militant organizations to protest unfair treatment and demand a democratically-elected government. During the authoritarian rule of General Sani Abacha, a Muslim from the North, Southerners increasingly feared political marginalization and demanded an end to the Hausa-Fulani domination of the political arena. This development signified the weakness of the government and their lack of effective mechanisms to manage ethnic conflict in Nigeria.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This study from the available facts is of the view that any realistic attempts to deal constructively with the conflicts in Nigeria must address the roots of conflict such as ethnic differences, poverty, high unemployment, revenue distribution, electoral malpractices, corruption and political godfatherism. It is also the position of this work that the churches and her leaders should draw the attention of their members to the fact that everything in this world is temporary and man will give account to God about his/her stewardship here on earth on the day of judgment. Again, the church leader should speak out strongly against the vices and ills of their society. Besides, the church leaders must do all within their power to inculcate in their members and general public the virtues of peace, honesty, justice, love, forgiveness, tolerance, public integrity and must also see that men/women of proven integrity, honesty and transparent character are placed in public offices.
Summary
While the challenge of conflict . prevention, mediation and resolution are enormous in Africa, they are not unrealizable. Some have suggested that Africa may be riddled with conflicts for the next two decades, I do not share that pessimism. Africa can and must indeed put behind it the scourge of war, famine and destruction. Such, a process will have to involve disaggregating and harnessing the potentials of some civil society groups in the process of peace building, and sustenance in Africa.
Conclusion
Nigeria from 1960 until now has been experiencing, ethnic divisions, confrontations, re-occurring conflicts both in politics, economy, leadership, religious, and class and so on. Nigeria’s political crisis keeps degenerates the more (Bradshaw York and Wallace Michael, 1996; 86). The table below shows few major conflict statuses, the parties involved, place, date, cause and the result effects, from 1963 to 2008 in Nigeria. Ethnicity emergence of Nigeria federalism has without measure caused feelings of ethnic identity and as a result; rejection became the basis of distinguishing individuals in the cities and at the national level (Nnoli, 1976: 14). It is phenomenon that each ethnic groups in Nigeria belief is that they can only receive help from members of their ethnic group alone (Sillo, 1999: 1). The recent bloody conflict that was named “Christians and Muslims” conflict at Jos, take for instance is a repeated evidences of what I called fact or colour, which resemble the truth, but not really the root (truth) of the escalation of the action (the war). The truth behind the action was that some cow reared men took their cows into the farms of another group which destroyed the crops in those other people’s farm, and when the owners of the farms came and was both angry, being hurtled because of their labored farms and crops been selfishly destroyed by other groups cows, in return against such unreasoning malpractices was the conflict. By reasoning, who will not agree that cows can destroy crops sown in any particular farm? Critically, if view in the right perspective, could such minor incident cause so many blood shedding and finally lost of lives to such an extent, the whole world can noticed? Why and how should such unusual trespass and individual wicked behavior be taken to be “Christians’ and Muslims” conflict? In education and it’s ramification, does politics means injustice, assassinations, killing, violent actions, corruptions, etc., as it is being experiencing in the modern politics among the political leaders’ and parties so called? In view of the above questions, let us take a look on the report below: “A new journey begins for Nigeria after incumbent President, Goodluck Jonathan was re-elected and sworn in as President over the weekend. However, from the trappings of the recent past, that journey seems to be on the same path of corruption, government ineptitude, official sleaze and waste and general hopelessness. Virtually everywhere you look on the Nigerian polity, all you see is how governance should not be done. If you expect that the new administration of President Goodluck Jonathan will usher in the much needed drive towards fast paced development and economic liberalization, then you expect too much. We see no reason how a man who has been at the helm for the better part of the last one year will suddenly do things differently now, simply because this term is his “personal mandate”. It does appear so though, as given the fact he said he would not be seeking a second term, then you’d expect an all out style of governance without fear and prejudice. There would be no need to satisfy the powers that be as he wouldn’t be in need of them again for any re-election purposes. If there is any man who owes Nigerians a huge debt, it is Goodluck Jonathan. Despite the PDP’s notoriety, they came out in their numbers to vote for him. Most of these voters said something in the line of “I am not voting for PDP, I am voting for Jonathan”, this despite the fact that Jonathan on the ballot paper was the symbol of an umbrella and the acronym PDP. In Nigeria, reason is always beyond reasoning. Words are bandied and used as if Nigerians were its creator. Well, they voted PDP and Jonathan won in a free and fair election. The question is whether Jonathan will stand by the masses now he has what he asked for. He has a lot to do. Outgoing Governors have handed over some 48 hours or so early. The two term Governor of the South Western State of Ogun, Gbenga Daniel is as we speak somewhere in the United Kingdom having handed over to the new government well ahead of schedule. Fully cognizant of his imminent arrest for corruption and his immunity, he chose to outrun justice early while justice cannot yet run after him. A man whom the people of Ogun state trusted with their future eight years ago as he promised them an agenda for a secured future, would not even wait to be cheered (or booed) out of office as he chose to leave in the cloud of suspicion and the fear of his own demons. Jonathan has the responsibility of making sure people like Gbenga Daniel, Alao Akala of Oyo state, Ikedi Ohakim of Imo state, Alhaji Ibrahim Shekarau of Kano state and their ilk face the wrath of the law.
Recommendation
Haven completed the study, the researcher recommends that;
A larger number of respondents should be considered when doing the same study so that the level of accuracy can be improved.
To remove any doubt or bias each and every one of these two areas should be studied differently.
The three ways of conflict resolution; avoidance, competition and collaboration aught to be studied deeply so that there could certainty to the level at which they can contribute to conflict resolution.
Other stakeholders in conflict resolution such as the government, the religious community and the locals themselves need to be keenly studied because this study assumes that 100 percent of the conflict was solved by Civil Society alone. This may not be entirely true.
Reference
- Adam, H. & Moodley, K. (1993). The Negotiated Revolution. Society and Politics in Post Apartheid South Africa. Johanesburg, Jonathan Ball Publishers.
- Afigbo, A. E. (1989). Federal Character: Its Meaning And History. In P.P Ekeh and E. Osaghae, (Eds), Federal Character and Federalism in Nigeria. Ibadan: Heinemann. Amnesty International, 23 November 2004.
- Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined Communities: Reflection on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. (ed) Revised Edition. London and New York: Verso.
- Badawi, A. (2006). World Apart. Malaysia New Straits Times, Friday, 22 September, pp. 1-2. B.B.C News, 19 June 2002, 16h GMT. BBC News, October 7, 2004.
- Bradshaw, Y. & Wallace, M. (1996). Global Inequalities. California, Pine Forge Press, p. 86. Brass, P. R. (1991). Ethnicity and Nationalism. Theory and Comparison. London, Sage Publication.