Communicable Diseases Among Primary School Pupils
Chapter One
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The objectives of writing this project are as follows;
- a) To identify the communicable diseases that is prevalent in primary schools in Oredo Local Government Area of Edo State.
- b) To find out the effects of communicable diseases on the pupils and the society at large.
- c) To outline the various causes of the diseases.
- d) To eradicate and control the diseases among primary school pupils in Oredo Local Government Area of Edo State.
- e) To examine the nature and scope of communicable diseases.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
Communicable diseases do not always develop in the same way in susceptible hosts. Some diseases produce more non-clinical cases that experience vague, non-specific symptoms or none at all (TB, Cholera, and Polio) and the infected thus spread the disease without being aware. Other diseases produce more clinical cases with easily detectable symptoms (Measles) (WHO, 2008). However, once exposed, people with specific symptoms as well as people without clinical or biological signs of infection are capable of spreading the disease to other susceptible persons. Transmission of communicable diseases can be investigated under the following thematic areas:
RISK FACTOR-BASED ANALYSIS
During the modern era of public health, attention to the natural and built environment has fluctuated (McMichael, 2001).Public health scientists are increasingly discovering that the recent emergence of infectious diseases has an origin in environmental change (McMichael & Martens, 2002; Patz et al., 2000). However, a growing body of literature on environmental change and infectious disease has emerged during the past decade, returning public health to its roots (Anderson, 2004). Suggestions that public health move from a discipline concerned primarily with risk factors at the individual level, and within the realm, provide the basis for testing causal hypotheses. This has reflected wider trends in biomedical thought and praxis. In the 19th Century, the progenitors of public health instituted a suit of interventions that astutely reflected perceived linkages between environmental conditions and poor health. Debates on the future of epidemiology offer guidance for the study of environmental change and communicable disease burden. Risk factor analysis may adeptly explain who is at risk but not why risks exist or differ within and between populations (Susser, 2004). In response, more valid and precise techniques that better accounts for bias and error have been developed (Lash &Fink, 2003). Others, on the other hand, have continued to advocate for risk factor approach, stressing the role of apparently inexplicable results in eventually guiding discovery (Greenland et al., 2004). Although such refinement and reflection have addressed some weaknesses of risk factor analysis, others have emerged. For example, although the individual level may be an important scale for probing certain public health questions, risk factor analysis is challenged by the complexity of fundamental causes, including social and ecological drivers (Pimentel et al., 1998), gene-environmental interventions (Hunter, 2005), and life course trajectories (Susser & Terry, 2003). The causes of variability in prevalence rates o communicable diseases has not been documented as shown in the knowledge gap reported in Susser(2004).
CAUSAL INFERENCE FOR COMMUNICABLE DISEASE
Yet other critiques have questioned the traditional analyzed approach in epidemiology that assumes independence of outcome. The assumption of independence means that the causal link between exposure and disease is made at the individual level. This model hinges on the premise that populations are simple collections of individuals, and the nature or arrangement of interactions between individuals does not alter patterns of risk (Koopman et al., 2004). In complex systems, inappropriate inferences based on potential outcome can severely distort the interpretation of effects and misdirect the application of interventions (Eisenberg et al., 2003). Risk factor analysis for infectious disease can be sometimes be partially salvaged through employing counterfactuals (Robins et al., 2000), but results from both experimental and observational studies warrant cautious scrutiny prior to generalization. There are important gender differences related to epidemic prone infectious diseases. Differences between males and females arise because of biological, and as consequence of gender-based roles, behavior and power (WHO, 2007). For reasons that are not yet understood (WHO, 2003), females had lower mortality rates from severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) than males, a pattern that is maintained after adjusting for age. The question whether epidemiologists should assume independence of outcome or violate it when making causal inferences for communicable diseases is a question of interest. Prevalence rates within and between populations is not documented
INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH AND INTEGRATION
Virtually all integrative reviews are, at least to some extent, interdisciplinary, as the study of environmental change and communicable disease clearly requires expertise from numerous fields (Parkens et al., 2005; Patz et al., 2004). Most integrative reviews include various biomedical sciences with more current work displaying greater inclusivity and deeper collaboration. In addition, integrative reviews that reference the gradually growing number of case studies on sustainable development or ecosystem approaches (Corvalan et al., 2005) bridge scientists, policy makers, activists, and citizens. Interdisciplinary research collaboration is the best way to go in coming up with the optimal public health intervention programs. Use of Focus Group discussion involving professionals from diverse backgrounds is not documented in the literature on communicable diseases and environment
SYSTEMS THEORY-BASED APPROACH
The overt consideration of feedbacks and interactions within and between populations in a transmission model allows for a consideration of infectious diseases as inherently dynamic and interdependent processes, and thus causality as context dependent and systems based (Koopman et al., 2004). These systems all use a systems theory-based approach to extend the purview of causation across axes of space, time, and organizational level and purpose to interrelate research at different scales through feedbacks and interactions. For example, if a core group is sustaining infection in a larger group, targeting interventions based on individual- level risk factors will not, in general, address the principle cause of disease (Christly et al., 2005; Verdasca et al., 2005). This study adopted a socio- economic systems perspective approach to epidemiologic research. It looked at social aspects of an individual or population and communicable disease prevalence rates.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
The researcher used descriptive research survey design in building up this project work the choice of this research design was considered appropriate because of its advantages of identifying attributes of a large population from a group of individuals. The design was suitable for the study as the study sought to communicable diseases among primary school pupil
Sources of data collection
Data were collected from two main sources namely:
(i)Primary source and
(ii)Secondary source
Primary source:
These are materials of statistical investigation which were collected by the research for a particular purpose. They can be obtained through a survey, observation questionnaire or as experiment; the researcher has adopted the questionnaire method for this study.
Secondary source:
These are data from textbook Journal handset etc. they arise as byproducts of the same other purposes. Example administration, various other unpublished works and write ups were also used.
Population of the study
Population of a study is a group of persons or aggregate items, things the researcher is interested in getting information on communicable diseases among primary school pupil. 200 staff of selected primary schools in Oredo local government of Edo state was selected randomly by the researcher as the population of the study.
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION ANALYSIS INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Introduction
Efforts will be made at this stage to present, analyze and interpret the data collected during the field survey. This presentation will be based on the responses from the completed questionnaires. The result of this exercise will be summarized in tabular forms for easy references and analysis. It will also show answers to questions relating to the research questions for this research study. The researcher employed simple percentage in the analysis.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Introduction
It is important to ascertain that the objective of this study was to ascertain communicable diseases among primary school pupils
In the preceding chapter, the relevant data collected for this study were presented, critically analyzed and appropriate interpretation given. In this chapter, certain recommendations made which in the opinion of the researcher will be of benefits in addressing the challenges of communicable diseases among primary school pupils
Summary
This study was on communicable diseases among primary school pupils. Four objectives were raised which included: To identify the communicable diseases that is prevalent in primary schools in Oredo Local Government Area of Edo State, to find out the effects of communicable diseases on the pupils and the society at large, to outline the various causes of the diseases, to eradicate and control the diseases among primary school pupils in Oredo Local Government Area of Edo State, to examine the nature and scope of communicable diseases. In line with these objectives, two research hypotheses were formulated and two null hypotheses were posited. The total population for the study is 200 staff of selected primary school in Oredo local government of Edo state. The researcher used questionnaires as the instrument for the data collection. Descriptive Survey research design was adopted for this study. A total of 133 respondents made up headmasters, senior staff, junior staff and non teaching staff was used for the study. The data collected were presented in tables and analyzed using simple percentages and frequencies.
Conclusion
This study has revealed that prevalence of diarrhea, tuberculosis, pneumonia and other respiratory tract infections are lower among female secondary school students than males, and that prevalence of malaria is higher in males than females. These differences are more due to differences in exposure than the differences in immunity. Male pupil spend more time outside houses in their normal life than female students and therefore exposed more to mosquito bites than females while females spend a lot more time in the households caring for the sick and changing nappies, for example, and more exposed to diarrhea, tuberculosis and pneumonia causing pathogens. Age of secondary school students is a significant vulnerability factor to Malaria, diarrhea, tuberculosis and pneumonia which were the important communicable diseases most prevalent among primary school pupil
Recommendation
Education about causes of malaria, diarrhea, tuberculosis and pneumonia; clinical features and prevention to be an important part of the curriculum for all schools in areas where students are at risk of infection.
- National communicable disease control programs to play increasing attention to the problem of malaria, diarrhea, tuberculosis and pneumonia among secondary school students.
- All primary schools to provide running water for hand washing to prevent diarrhea, tuberculosis and pneumonia infections.
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