Characterization and Utilization of Activated Tamarind Kernel Powder in Industrial Waste-water Treatment

Characterization and Utilization of Activated Tamarind Kernel Powder in Industrial Waste-water Treatment

Chapter One

Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to characterize and utilize Activated Tamarind Kernel Powder (ATKP) in the treatment of Industrial waste water.

This aim will be achieved by the following objectives:

1. To isolate, carbonize and activate the tamarind kernelpowder
2. To determine some physicochemical parameters which include pH, contact time, adsorbent dose and initial concentration of the ATKPadsorbent
3. To run the FTIR Spectra of the activated ATKP adsorbent before and after treatment with Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive Blue 29 (AR1, RO20 and RB29) in order to identify the functional groups responsible for the adsorption of each dye molecule unto the ATKPsurface
4. To analyse the effect of Initial concentration, Initial pH, Contact time, Adsorbent dose and operating Temperature in order to determine the optimum conditions for maximum adsorption of the dyes (AR1, RO20 and RB29) from their aqueous solutions
5. To examine the adsorption efficiency of ATKP for AR1, RO20 and RB29 by analysing the adsorption isotherms (Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin- Radushkevich)
6. To examine the rate of adsorption by studying the adsorption Kinetics (Lagagren Pseudo-First order and Pseudo-Secondorder)
7. To examine the spontaneity of adsorption of AR1, RO20 and RB29 on ATKP through the determination of the thermodynamics parameters (Standard Gibbs free energy, Activation Energy, Enthalpy and Entropy)

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Dyes

Dye is a natural or synthetic colouring material, whether soluble or insoluble which impacts its colour to a material by staining or being imbibed by it, and which is employed from a solution of fine dispersion, sometimes with the aid of mordant. Many types of dyes used in textile industries are direct, reactive, acid, and basic dyes. However, these dyes are invariably left in the industrial wastes. They are widely used in textile, paper, leather, and mineral processing industries to colour their product. Their presence in wastewater causes adverse effects in human and aquatic life when disposed into the environment (Wang et al., 2005). This is because they have synthetic origin and complex aromatic molecular structures, which makes them inert and difficult to biodegrade when discharged into waste streams. Also,people overlook their undesirable nature. Some dyes and their degradation products may be carcinogens and toxins, which are important sources of water pollution. Thus, their treatment becomes a major problem to environmental managers. Some dyes are harmful to aquatic life in rivers where they are discharged, because they can reduce light penetration into water, decrease the efficiency of photosynthesis in aquatic plant, and have adverse effect on their growth (Gurses et al., 2006). Furthermore, dyes can also cause severe damage to human beings such as the malfunctioning of kidney, reproductive system, liver, brain, and the central nervous system (Andre et al., 2011).

Acid dyes

 Acid dyes are highly water soluble, and have better light fastness than basic dyes. The textile acid dyes are effective for protein fibres such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylics. They contain sulphonic acid groups, which are usually present as sodium sulphonate salts. These increase solubility in water, and give the dye molecules a negative charge. In an acidic+solution, the -NH₂ functionalities of the fibres are protonated to give a positive charge    NH3.

This charge interacts with the negative dye charge, allowing the formation of ionic interactions. As well as this, Van-der-Waals bonds, dipolar bonds and hydrogen bonds are formed between dye and fibre. As a group, acid dyes can be divided into two sub-groups: acid-levelling or acid-milling. These dyes are normally very complex in structure but have large aromatic molecules, having a sulphonyl or amino group which makes them soluble in water. Most of the acid dyes belong to one of the following three main structural molecules, namely anthraquinone,  azo and triphenylmethane  type(www.Textilelearner.blogspot.com.ng 2012). A common example of acid dye is C.I. Acid Red 1. This dye is synthesised by diazotizing aniline and coupling the salt with 4-acetamido-5-hydroxynaphthalene-2,7- disulfonicacid (www.worlddyevariety.com/acidred1, 2013)

 Reactive Dyes

Reactive dyes are coloured organic compounds that are capable of forming a covalent bond between reactive groups of the dye molecule and nucleophilic groups on the polymer chains within the fibre (Tailor et al., 2006). Consequently, the dyes become chemically part of the fibre by producing dye-polymer linkages (Dolby, 1977; Nkeonye, 1988). In this regard, covalent dye-polymer bonds are formed, for instance, with the hydroxyl groups of cellulose, the amino, hydroxyl and mercapto groups of proteins, and the amino groups of polyamides (Patel et al., 2002).

The possibility of forming a covalent bond between dyes and fibres had long been attractive to dye chemists, since attachment by physical adsorption and by mechanical retention had the disadvantage of either low wash fastness or high cost (Beech, 1970; Ahmed, 1995). It was anticipated that the covalent attachment of the dye molecules to the fibre would produce very high washfastness because covalent bonds are the strongest known binding forces between molecules (Nkeonye, 1988; Bhattacharya and Paschal, 1984). The energy required to break this bond would be of the same order as that required to break covalent bonds in the fibre itself (Lewis, 1982).

Reactive dyes were initially introduced commercially for application to cellulosic fibres, and this is still their most important use (Christie, 2001; Ratee, 1984). The growth rate of reactive dyes for cellulosic fibres is expected to continue increasing, because reactive dyes continue to gain market share at the expense of other dye types such as azoic dyes (Dolby, 1977). Reactive dyes have also been developed for application on protein and polyamide fibres. In addition, investigations into the development of reactive dyes for polyester and polypropylene fibres have been demonstrated to the level of technical possibility but such dyes are not yet of commercial interest (Christie, 2001; Ratee, 1984).

C.I. Reactive Blue 29

Reactive Blue 29 is synthesised from the condensation reaction of 1-amino-4-bromo-9,10- dihydroanthracene-2-sulfunic acid and 2,5-diaminobenzene sulfonic acid and then reacting the product by condensation with 2,3-dicholoroquinoxaline-6- carboxylchloride(www.worlddyevariety.com/reactiveblue29, 2013).

₦3,000.00 – DOWNLOAD CHAPTERS 1-5 PROCEED TO DOWNLOAD Added to cart

 

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials

 Sample Collection, Identification and Treatment

Tamarind kernel fruit was collected from the local market at Samaru, Sabongari Local Government Area of Kaduna state. After collection it was taken to Biological Sciences Department of Ahmadu Bello University where it was identified as Tamarindus indica. The Tamarind kernel seeds were washed thoroughly with water to remove the adhering materials. Then, the reddish testa of the seeds wasremoved by heating seeds in an oven at 80⁰C for 2 hours. The kernelswere tamped and placed in the oven at a temperature of 300 ⁰C for 3 hours for the tamped powder to carbonize completely. The powder was sieved through 400 microns to get uniform geometrical size for use. The Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive Blue 29 dye samples were supplied by Sigma Aldrich Company.

Preparation of 0.1 M HCl

Exactly 8.3 ml of concentrated HCl_(aq) (37% w/v) with specific gravity of 1.19 g/cm³, was measured into a 1 L volumetric flask and made up to mark with double distilled water.

Preparation of 0.1 M NaOH

Exactly 4.0 g of sodium hydroxide pellets were dissolved indouble distilled water in a 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to mark with double distilled water.

CHAPTER FOUR

 RESULTS

 Characterization of Activated Tamarind Kernel Powder

Table 4.1 shows the values obtained from the physicochemical characterization that was carried out on the activated tamarind kernel powder.

FTIR Analysis of ATKP

Tables 4.2 to 4.5 show the results obtained from the FTIR analysis of pure activated tamarind kernel powder, Acid Red 1treated, Reactive Blue 29 treated and Reactive Orange 20 treated activated tamarind kernel powder respectively. Also the FTIR spectra from the analysis stated above are represented in Figures 4.1 to 4.4 in the same order as above.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION

Characterization of Activated Tamarind Kernel Powder(ATKP)

Moisture and Dry matter content of ATKP

The moisture content of activated TKP is seen to possess 3.45% of moisture and 96.55% of Dry matter. The percentage of moisture was lower when compared to values obtained from Khaya senegalensis fruit (6.17 %), walnut shell (4.18 %), Delonix regia (6.286 %), and Locust bean husk (8.20 %) as reported by Gimba et al., (2009); Abechi, (2006); Ocholi, (2006); and Oladunni et al., (2012) respectively. It was also lower than that obtained from Euphorbia antiquorum (7.56 %) Rice husk (6.62 %) reported by Palanisamy and Sivakumar (2009) and Malik (2003) respectively. The low moistureand high dry matter content of the ATKP indicates that the adsorbent is an excellent material for adsorption processes.

 Bulk Density of TKP

The bulk density of activated tamarind kernel powder (Table 4.1) was found to be 0.4g/cm³ which showed some variation with that reported by Oladunni et al., (0.49 g/cm³) for locust bean husk, 0.26 g/cm³ for saw dust of Dalbergia sisso (Shakirullah et al., 2006); 0.81 g/cm³ for Khaya senegalensis fruits (Gimba et al., 2009); 1.1034 g/cm³ for walnut shell (Abechi, 2006); 0.563 g/cm³ for Delonix regia pods (Ocholi, 2006); 0.73 g/cm³ for rice husk carbon (Malik, 2003); 0.48 g/cm³ for Euphorbia antiquorum (Palanisamy and Sivakumar, 2009); 0.28 g/cm³ for Enteromorpha prolifera (Sun and Yang 2003); and 0.5494 g/cm³ for mosambi peel (Ladhe et al., 2011).Abram (1973) reported that the bulk density of an adsorbent determines to a very large extent the length of itsfiltration cycle. Okiemmenet al., (2008) also reported that bulk density is an important parameter as far as the investigation into the filterability of an adsorbent is concerned because it determines the amount of adsorbent that can be contained in a filter of a given solid‘s capacity and the amount of treated liquid that can be retained by the filter cake. Oladunni et al., (2012) also reported that when the bulk density of an adsorbent is high, greater volume activity is provided which is an indication of better adsorbent quality.

CHAPTER SIX

 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 Summary and Conclusion

In this research, adsorption of C.I Acid Red 1, C.I Reactive Orange 20 and C.I Reactive Blue 29using activated carbonized tamarind kernel powder was successfully carried out.The characterization analysis carried out on the activated carbon indicated that all parameters namely: bulk density, pH, ash content and dry matterwere within acceptable range. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic analysis carried out on the raw activated tamarind kernel powder indicated the presence of functional groups which include: Hydroxyl, alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, carboxyl, phenols, phosphates, carbonyl, primary and secondary amines,etc.; which constitute very important adsorption sites on the adsorbent surface. The FTIR analysis carried out on the dye-adsorbed activated tamarind kernel powder indicated the presence of some functional groups which did not appear in the FTIR spectrum of raw ATKP. They include: open chain azo groups, quinones, conjugated ketones, sulphonates, aromatic ethers, aromatic nitro groups and others. The effect of the different parameters namely: pH, adsorbent dosage, initial dye concentration, contact time and temperature indicated that the adsorption of Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive Blue 29 from the simulated dye based wastewater using activated tamarind kernel powder isdependent on these factors. From the four equilibrium isotherms tested in this research the order in which the data obtained best fits the isotherm models are Langmuir >Temkin > Dubinin Radushkevich >Freundlich.

From the Adsorption kinetic models, Pseudo-Second order kinetic model offered the best description of the adsorption kinetics modelling carried out.From the thermodynamic studies, it could be inferred that the adsorption of Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive Blue 29 on activated tamarind kernel powder is a physical process (physisorption) due to the fact that the activation energy (E_A) value was less than 8kJ/mol and hence the adsorbent can be easily regenerated and re-used. It is also feasible and spontaneous due to negative value of the Gibb‘s free energy (∆G).The negative change in enthalpy (ΔH) value revealed the exothermic nature of the adsorption process.The negative change in entropy (ΔS) values of the system suggests the decrease in adsorbate concentration in solid-solution interface indicating thereby the increase in adsorbate concentration onto the solid phase. This is the normal consequence of the physical adsorption phenomenon, which takes place through electrostatic interactions as reported by Saswati and Uday, (2005).

Recommendations

 From this work, it is evident that activated tamarind kernel powder has the capacity to remove Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive Blue 29. Therefore, it is imperative to explore the following areas so as to help reveal some of the latent potentials of tamarind kernel powder that have not been reported in this or any other research:

1. The adsorption potential of regenerated activated tamarind kernel
2. The potential of tamarind kernel powder as filler in polymer

• The heavy metals adsorption capacity of tamarind kernel

1. The adsorptive capacity of tamarind kernel powder obtained from different
2. The variation in adsorptive capacity of tamarind kernel powder activated via different means.
3. The adsorptive potential of nano particles obtained from tamarind kernel

Contributions to Knowledge

This research has presented us with the following information

1. The adsorption of Acid Red 1 (AR1), Reactive Orange 20 (RO20) and Reactive Blue 29 (RB29) on activated tamarind kernel powder (ATKP) is a physicochemicalprocess
2. The adsorption of AR1, RO20 and RB29 on ATKP is more dependent on heat of adsorption which decreases linearly with coverage due to adsorbate-adsorbent interaction.

• The adsorbed dye molecules are not so tightly held unto the ATKP due to the reduced binding energies observed with increased in the temperature of the system. This indicates that ATKP can be easily regenerated and

REFERENCES

•  Abechi, S.E. (2006). Adsorption Characteristics of Ti (IV) and Zn(II) Oxide Coated Activated Carbon from Walnut Shells. An M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Chemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
• Abram, J.C. (1973). The Characteristics of Activated Carbon. A paper Presented at a conference  on  ―Activated  carbon  in  Water  Treatment,  organized  by  the  Walter Research Association held at the University of Reading, Malaysia. Pp. 1-29.
• Abdessalem, O., Ahmed, W., and Mourad, B., (2012). Adsorption of Bentazon on Activated Carbon Prepared from Lawsonia Inermis Wood. Equilibrium and Thermodynamic studies, Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 10, 1016.
• Aharoni, C. and Sparks, D. L. (1991). ‗Kinetics of Soil Chemical Reaction-A Theoretical Treatment‘ in D. L. Sparks and D. L. Suarez (eds), Rates of soil chemical processes, Soil Science society of America, Madison, Wi, pp1-18.
• Ahmed, A.I., (1995).Reactive Dyes Development- A Review.Textile Dyer & Printer, 28(16): 19.
• Ahalya   N.,   Kanamadi   R.D.   and   Ramchendra   T.V.   (2005). Electronic Journal of Biotechnology. 3(3), 258-264.
• Al-degs, Y.S., Musa I.E., Annjad H.E., and Gavin M.W., (2007). Effect of Solution pH, Ionic Strength, and Temperature on Adsorption Behaviour of Reactive Dyes on Activated Carbon. Elsevier Journal of Dyes and Pigments,1-8.

₦3,000.00 – DOWNLOAD CHAPTERS 1-5 PROCEED TO DOWNLOAD Added to cart