Assessment of Instructional Delivery Strategies and Out-of-Classroom Interaction at Primary Schools in Rivers
Chapter One
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study is to help illuminate, from the pupil perspective, successful out-of-classroom teacher-pupil disciplinary strategies, so as to promote more of such interactions formally and informally, thereby increasing the quality of primary school education.
Chapter Two
Review of Related Literature
INTRODUCTION
Education systems the world over have become increasingly focused on issues related to pupil retention, which affect both fiscal and pupils outcome dimensions in primary schools. Increased retention of pupils can lead to more budgetary resources. Additionally, primary schools have begun to understand the importance of holistic, high quality education for all pupils as that is the foundation of child education.
Pupil engagement defines the type of educational quality a Pupil experiences. Engaged pupils gain more from their experience than those pupils who are not as engaged. Kuh (2015) defines pupil engagement as “the time and energy pupils devote to educationally sound activities inside and outside the classroom, and the policies and practices that teachers use to induce pupils to take a part in these activities” (p. 25). A national survey conducted in Kenya highlighted a number of educational activities which will make a difference in Pupil engagement (Kuh, 2016).
The survey pointed out five areas which are critical to pupil engagement: level of academic challenge; active and collaborative learning; enriching educational experiences; supportive environment; and, teacher-pupil interaction. Teacher-pupil interaction has been shown to have positive effects on pupil retention and success in a variety of ways. The interaction outside of the classroom has been noted to be of particular importance.
Various Studies have documented the importance of teacher-pupil interaction outside the classroom (e.g., Astin, 2010; Berger & Millem, 2011; Kuh, 2016; Lamport, 2016; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2018; Passi, 2019 ). Interaction outside the classroom has been defined as informal talks with pupils, discussing class ideas and readings, collaborating on assignments, invitations to homes, and other general out of the classroom encounters. Researchers acknowledge, however, that current answers to these questions have mostly described the type and frequency of teacher-pupil interaction, but not necessarily the quality of such interaction (Kuh, 2015). More research, specifically qualitative, must be conducted to learn about the quality of teacher-pupil out-of-classroom interaction (Powell, 1994).
Teacher-pupil Interaction Research
For several decades researchers have addressed issues related to teacher-pupil interaction outside of the classroom. Most research has been quantitative in nature and has found that teacher-pupil interaction positively affects pupil outcomes, including academic achievement, collegiate satisfaction, and pupil retention.
A survey on student engagement documented the importance of time on task and asks five questions in particular that address teacher-pupil out-of-classroom interaction. The questions address time pupils spend outside of class discussing assignments, class content or readings with class mates. Additionally, pupils are asked about receiving prompt oral and written feedback from class mates and how often they have worked with class mates on activities. The research discovered that although teacher-pupil interaction is known to add to the quality of education , the amount of interaction shown by survey participants seemed to be less than optimal. Primary one pupils, for example, responded that they had occasional contact (once or twice a month) with their class mates(Kuh, 2016). Further inquiry has revealed that the frequency of teacher-pupil interaction may not be as important as the nature of such interaction. Teacher-pupil interaction matters most when the nature of the interaction “encourages pupils to devote greater effort to other educationally purposeful activities” (Kuh, 2015, p. 29). Kuh et al. (2005) affirmed that “meaningful interactions between pupils and their teachers are essential to high-quality learning experiences” (p. 207).
In Ebube and Musa’s analysis of 20 years of research, How school Affects pupils (2018), the researchers found considerable evidence to suggest that when teacher-pupil interaction extends beyond the classroom, the impact of teachers as role models for pupils is increased. In addition, they found that increased interaction between teachers and pupils serves to strengthen the bonds pupils have with their institution, thereby increasing the likelihood of social integration and persistence.
Astin observed in What Matters in school: Four Years Revisited (2010), that the higher the pupil orientation of the school, the more positive effect it had on pupil retention. In addition, of all environmental variables studied, pupil-oriented teachers was one of only two variables that showed positive effects on pupils’ overall academic development. The pupil orientation of the teacher also produced positive effects on pupil satisfaction with teacherand the quality of instruction, degree attainment, and preparation for graduate school, among other factors. In summarizing the impact of the teacher, Astin (2010) observed that “having a strong pupil-oriented teacher pays rich dividends in the affective and cognitive development of the undergraduate” (p. 342).
In a 2019 study, Astin and Chang explored characteristics of teacher who had been able to successfully balance the goals of teaching. Qualities included frequent interaction with pupils, a strong support for pupil services.
Pascarella and Terenzini (1978) wrote a classic article related to teacher-pupil interaction. In this article, they highlighted results of their investigation on the effects of teacher-pupil interaction on the outcomes of pupils’ first year in school. Researchers found that the impact of teacher-pupil interaction was significant even after controlling for 14 pre-school characteristics. This research also highlighted that some types of teacher-pupil out-of- classroom interaction have more of a positive impact on pupil academic achievement than others, as defined by their performance in the end of year exams. Teacher-pupil interaction that focuses on intellectual or course-related issues had the highest impact on academic achievement and self-perceived intellectual development.
Chickering and Gamson (1987) identified the seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education which are important in school pupil success. One of these principles is teacher-pupil interaction. The authors believed this interaction, encouraging contact between pupils and faculty, is a key factor in pupil motivation and involvement. They were able to identify seven principles by analyzing research related to educational practices that promote high levels of learning and personal development. All of these principles can at some level relate to the important relationship between teachers and their pupils. Other principles that address the areas of improving primary school education include: developing reciprocity and cooperation among pupils, encouraging active learning, providing prompt and appropriate feedback, emphasizing time on task, communicating high expectations and respecting diverse talents and ways of learning.
From a retention standpoint, Dallimore-Nordquist’s (1994) master’s thesis found evidence of the importance of teacher-pupil interaction on pupil persistence. Pupils stated that several teacher behaviors made them feel less isolated and helped them to succeed. Such behaviors included: stopping to talk to pupils outside of class; asking about pupils’ lives; and, providing a classroom atmosphere that helped pupils get to know each other. Another correlation to retention was found in Johnson’s (1997) study of commuter pupils. Staff to pupil interaction was the most important characteristic distinguishing pupils who passed versus those who failed. The researcher found that the more quantity and quality of interaction pupils had with teacher and staff members, the more likely they were to be improve academically . It is against this background that this study aims to assess the instructional delivery strategies utilized by teachers in out of classroom interactions.
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