Analysis of Waste Water for Pathogenic Bacteria
CHAPTER ONE
Research Aims and Objectives
This research is aimed at determining the waste water quality in the Imo state River as to the types of pollution deposited into the Imo state River and the impact this pollution has on contamination of the river with antibiotic-resistant and heavy metal-tolerant pathogenic bacteria. In achieving these aims, the following objectives were completed:
- To collect sediment and water samples from selected sites in the Imo state River, Owerri Town, Nigeria
- To analyse these samples using atomic absorption spectrometry for the presence of heavy metals such as cadmium and lead
CHAPTER TWO
IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON POLLUTION
Introduction
Waste disposal constitutes a major urban problem worldwide (Javaheri et al., 2006; Ning, 2011). Unless properly managed, it may lead to irreversible pollution of ecosystems (Ntabugi, 2013). Such waste is generated in cities from household activities as well as from commercial and industrial sectors (Mukisa, 2009, Ning, 2011). It contributes, according to its composition, to the pollution of soil, air and water with microbes and toxic chemicals (Awomeso et al., 2010; Belaid, 2010).
Pollution of water has increased in cities in developing countries due to their demographic growth, economic development and the low educational level regarding waste management and environmental protection. In addition, urbanization structure may not allow easy collection of waste (Charnay, 2005). Thus, political authorities in developing countries face a major problem of waste management planning where the main difficulties they find are insufficient skilled persons in environmental management and in public administration, as well as corruption (Ntabugi, 2013). This motivates against effective waste management strategies (Aloueimine, 2006; Charnay, 2005).
Mutuku et al. (2014) reported that waste constitutes an important source of microbes and heavy metals (HMs) in urban river water. Contact with these pollutants leads to health risks (Nageswaran et al, 2012) including modification of the structures of enzymes and the evolution in microbes of resistance to antibiotics (Abdelatey al., 2011). Subsequent infection with antibiotic-resistant bacteria can compromise medical treatment and may increase patient mortality and morbidity (Yah and Eghafona, 2008). The consequences of the pollution of surface urban water could be reduced if the governments of developing countries prioritised the management of waste in governmental activities.
Waste is not managed in the Imo state River catchment but is abandoned in the environment where it may contribute to environmental pollution by HMs and pathogenic bacteria. The current study aims to assess the impact of human activities performed in the Imo state River catchment on the pollution of sediment and water.
Review of literature
Waste management
Definition of waste
Waste is the abandoned residue of production processes and, by its nature, may contribute toxic effects into the natural environment (Citeretse, 2008; Ntabugi, 2013). According to Sane (2002), waste is all objects or substances with no economic value or is negative for the owner and who has to pay to have it taken away. The waste in the Imo state River catchment that is produced from anthropogenic activities falls within the definition above.
CHAPTER THREE
ASSESSMENT OF CADMIUM AND LEAD IN THE IMO STATE RIVER
Review of literature
The fate of Cd and Pb in the Imo state River
Heavy metals such as Cd and Pb are discharged into the Imo state River from anthropogenic activities performed within the river catchment. Mahmud et al. (2012) reported that heavy metals discharged into aquatic environment may bond with organic molecules and together these precipitate to the bottom of the river and add to the sediment. Secondly, they can dissolve in water which transports them into ground water leading to the pollution of aquifer water (Sekomo et al., 2009; Mahmud et al., 2012). Thirdly, in Owerri Town, the metals may either remain in the river or be carried into Lake Kivu where they may be absorbed and accumulate in aquatic organisms (Rajaganapathy et al., 2011). Humans and the biodiversity can then take up these HMs through the food chain in the process of biomagnification (Nacklé, 2003; Žukowska and Biziuk, 2008). Bioaccumulation of these metals depends on the species involved and the physical and chemical characteristics of the metals (Blinda, 2005; Sekomo, 2010).
CHAPTER FOUR
ASSESSMENT OF PATHOGENIC BACTERIA IN THE IMO STATE RIVER
Introduction
Life started in water and evolved in it before being extended onto land. And life still depends on water (Hamid et al., 2007). Apart from being essential for life, water directly contributes to human activities such as agriculture, industry, and recreational activities. After being used, it is returned to the environment and is often contaminated with chemicals and organisms that alter its quality (Corcoran et al., 2010; UN-Water, 2011). Water has become, therefore, a source of disease which places at risk the health of humans and animals (Katarina and Payment, 2005).
CHAPTER FIVE
GENERAL CONCLUSION
The research carried out in the Imo state River aimed to assess HMs and bacterial pollution of sediment and water. In order to achieve the research objectives, investigations focused on i) the source of pollution; ii) the assessment of Cd and Pb concentration and iii) that of pathogenic bacteria. Research focussing on the pollution source survey of the river was conducted from June to August 2013 and aimed to identify possible sources of bacteria and HMs (Cd and Pb) in the Imo state River catchment. To achieve this goal, a questionnaire was distributed to Owerri citizens and their responses to the survey were analysed to determine the type and disposal of waste from garages, factories, healthcare facilities and domestic households.
The results obtained in the research showed that wastewater from garages is discarded wherever mainly convenient and the effluent from the garages may contain Cd and Pb that are likely to pollute the sediment and water in the receiving river. Likewise, domestic wastewater is mainly discharged into canals and may also contain polluting HMs. The vast majority of domestic solid waste is incinerated but this practice may spread Cd and Pb dust into the environment which can then return into surface water. The majority of toilets are pit latrines and when overloaded, particularly in the wet season, these toilets may discharge faeces into the river leading to enteric bacterial contamination of its sediment and water. The solid waste generated in the healthcare facilities is incinerated while much of the wastewater from these facilties is released directly into canals. This practice is of great concern as waste from healthcare facilities constitute the main source of bacteria.
The research carried out to assess Cd and Pb pollution in the Imo state River successfully used AAS to determine the concentration of HMs such as Cd and Pb in the Imo state River. Results showed that the sediment and water were extensively polluted by Cd and Pb, well above the standard limits set for drinking water and for sediment. Pollution of the Imo state River by these HMs may have a great impact on all life in the river and in Lake Kivu.
The study also aimed to isolate and identify bacteria from the rive r and to study bacterial resistance to selected antibiotics and tolerance to HMs such as Cd and Pb. In the process, the samples were collected and analysed for indicator and pathogenic bacterial to show that the river was polluted by both indicator and pathogenic bacteria. These bacteria were extensively resistant to antibiotics and tolerant to HMs. Least resistance was shown to Cip compared to the other antibiotics and all the bacterial strains tested were resistant to Amp. Likewise, tests to determine tolerance to HMs were performed on bacteria isolated from the Imo state River and showed that all the bacterial strains tested were tolerant to Cd and Pb. In general, lower tolerance to both antibiotics and HMs was shown in the bacteria isolated from water samples compared to the bacteria isolated from the river sediment.
While this increase in resistance may result from the impact of an increase in concentration of both antibiotics as well as HMs accumulating in the sediment from the water, the exciting possibility of the presence of biofilm-like populations of bacteria present in sediment must also be considered. Such colonies of bacteria may dynamically cooperate within the sediment to minimize the impact of antibacterial pollutants such as antibiotics and HMs by increasing mutual transfer of genetic material encoding resistance genes.
The current research should be extended in a biotechnology direction whereby the study of dynamic microbial defence mechanisms such as resistance gene transfer as well as biofilm populations may be translated into practical means whereby we can purify water following the removal from the water of HMs, antibiotics, hormones and a variety of compounds that pollute the water.
REFERENCES
- Abdelatey L., Khalil WK, Thanaah A, Karima F 2011: Heavy metal resistance and gene expression analysis of metal resistance genes in gram positive and gram negative bacteria present in Egyptian soils. Environment and Sanitation, 6, 201-211
- Abdo MH, Sabae SZ., Haroon BM, Refaat BM and Mohammed AS 2010: Physico-chemical characteristics, microbial assessment and antibiotic susceptibility of pathogenic bacteria of Ismailia canal water, River Nile, Egypt. Journal of American Sciences, 6, 234-250
- Abu GO and Egenonu 2008: The current pollution status of the new Colabar River in the Niger Delta region of southern Nigeria: A survey of antibiogram profiles of its bacterial isolates. African Journal of Environment Science and Technology, 2, 134-141
- Adefemi SO and Awokunmi EE 2010: Determination of physico-chemical parameters and heavy metals in water samples from Itaogbolu area of Ondo-State, Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 4, 145-148
- Adelekan AB and Abegunde KD 2011: Heavy metal contamination of soil and ground water at automobile mechanic village in Ibadan, Nigeria. International Journal of the Physical Sciences, 6, 1045-1058
- Aderinola OJC, Olarinmoye OM, Kusemiju V and Anatekhai MA 2009: Heavy metals in surface water and sediment and Perwinklesof Lagos Lagoon. American-Eurasian Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, 5, 609-617
- Carlender A 2006: Assessment of microbial health hazards associated with wastewater: Application to willow coppice coniferous forest and wetland system. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Agricultural Science, Department of Crop production Ecology. Pp 35-85
- Carr G and Neary JP 2008: Water quality for ecosystem and human health, 2ed. Ontario, UNEP. Pp. 72-118
- CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) 2005: Preventing lead poisoning in young children. CDC Atlanta US. Department of Health and Human Services, Public health services
- CDC 2003: A global Salmonella surveillance and laboratory support project of the world health organization laboratory protocol, 4ed, Rene S. Hendriksen, Geneve, pp. 5-23
