Advertisements

Anatomy Project Topics

Anthropometric and Reproductive Characteristics of Girls and Women in Kumana Chiefdom, Kauru Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria

Anthropometric and Reproductive Characteristics of Girls and Women in Kumana Chiefdom, Kauru Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria

Advertisements

Anthropometric and Reproductive Characteristics of Girls and Women in Kumana Chiefdom, Kauru Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria

Chapter One

Aimย and objectiveย ofย theย study

ย Aimย ofย theย study

ย Theย aimย ofย theย studyย wasย toย investigateย theย relationshipsย betweenย theย anthropometricย and reproductive characteristics of girls and women in Kumana Chiefdom, Kauru Localย Governmentย Areaย of Kadunaย State, Nigeria.

Objectivesย of theย study

ย Theย objectives ofย theย studyย wereย to:-

  1. describe the anthropometric characteristics of girls and women in Kumana
  2. determinetheย patternย ofย reproductiveย characteristicsย ofย girlsย usingย meanย menarcheal
  3. investigate the relationships between some anthropometric traits (Body massindex)ย andย someย reproductiveย characteristics,ย suchย asย menarchealย andย menopausal
  4. determine the perception and attitude of the girls and women toward theirreproductive changes\
  5. investigate relationships between (2D:4D) digit ratio, menarcheal and menopausal age in girls and women from Kumana
  6. investigate the relationship between some anthropometric variables and height of the girls and women in Kumana Chiefdom
  7. determine the relationship of the reproductive characteristics and their determinants

CHAPTERย TWO

ย LITERATUREย REVIEW

ย Pubertyย in Girls

Puberty is the process of change that occurs in the body of girls in which the bodyย matures into adult hood. Puberty and adolescence are often used synonymous to refer toย the developmental transition from childhood to adulthood, even though they are not theย same (Sisk and Zehr, 2005). Puberty is the period during which the individual becomesย capableย ofย reproducing,ย whileย adolescenceย isย theย periodย betweenย childhoodย andย adulthood, encompassing not only reproductive maturation but also cognitive, emotionalย and social maturation (Sisk and Zehr, 2005). A biological hallmark of puberty is theย elevated secretion of gonadal steroid hormones which produce the signs of reproductiveย maturationย suchย asย theย developmentย ofย breastย orย theย appearanceย ofย facialย hair.ย Aย biological hallmark of adolescence is the remarkable remodeling of cortical and limbicย circuit which leads to acquisition of adult cognition, decision making strategies andย social behaviours. Puberty and adolescence are intricately linked because the brain is theย targetย organย forย steroid hormonesย (Sisk andย Zehr,ย 2005).

Some factors are responsible for the occurrence of puberty, prominent among theseย factors are genetic andย environmental factors that are responsible for the timing ofย puberty in girls (Ge et al., 2007). The average age at which puberty begins may also beย affected by race as well, the African-American girls are found to have the earliest onsetย of puberty and the Asian girls having the latest onset of puberty (Mustanski et al., 2004;ย Dungerย etย al.,ย 2005). Direct genetic effect have been found to account for at least 46% of theย variationsย ofย timingย ofย pubertyย inย well-nourishedย populations,ย thisย geneticย associationย isย strongestย betweenย mothersย andย daughtersย (Commingsย etย al.,ย 2002;ย Mustanski et al., 2004).ย Body fat or body composition may also play an important roleย in regulating the onset of puberty (Thomas, et al., 2001). Puberty is associated with theย development of sex characteristics which is the most notable morphological changes inย the girl (Parent, et al., 2003; Kail and Cavanaugh, 2010). There is early or late puberty,ย early puberty is term precocious puberty and the one that starts later than usual is knownย as delayed puberty. Some medical conditions in the girl may worsen or become apparentย at puberty. It has been observed that childhood obesity may be related to early pubertyย (Davison,ย etย al.,ย 2003).ย Noddingย syndromeย isย aย neurologicalย disorderย thatย affectย children and adolescents in parts of East Africa (Winkler et al., 2008; Dowell et al.,ย 2013)ย patientsย withย theย noddingย syndromeย haveย extremeย shortย statureย andย delayedย development of secondary sexual characteristics whichย causes delay in the onset of theย Pubertyย (Piloya-Were etย al., 2014).

Some patientsย haveย alsoย beenย observedย toย have delayedย developmentย of secondaryย sexual characteristics and very low height as compared to normal children. These typesย of patientsย are saidย toย have Nakalanga syndrome,ย whichย isย similar toย the Noddingย syndrome (Piloya-Were et al., 2014). Puberty only describes the physical changes toย sexualย maturationย notย psychosocialย andย culturalย maturationย thatย isย describedย byย adolescent (Gluckman and Hanson, 2006; Chukwujekwu et al., 2014). The first sign of puberty in girls is a firm, tender lump under the center of the areola of one or both breast and the second is the pubic hair visible first along the labia. Perineal skin keratinizes underย theย influenceย ofย estrogenย increasingย itsย resistanceย toย infection.ย Atย theย completionย ofย pubertyย uterine bodyย to cervixย ratio increases from 1:1 to 2:1 or 3:1.

ย Infertility

Infertility refers to an inability of couples to conceive after having regular unprotected sex for at least a year (Larsen, 2005). It is also referred to be the biological inability of an individual to contribute to the conception or to a female who cannot carry pregnancy to full term (Sule, et al., 2008). About 30% of infertility is due to females, 30% to maleย problems and 30% to combined male and female problems, while 10% is due to noย recognisableย cause.ย Infertilityย canย leadย toย distressย andย depressionย asย wellย asย discrimination (Cui, 2010). To reduce the burden of this neglected disability an accurateย profile ofย theย prevalence isย very importantย butย thisย isย very difficultย becauseย ofย theย scarcity of population based studies (Sule et al., 2008). The inability to have childrenย affectsย bothย menย andย womenย (Cui,ย 2010).

 

CHAPTERย THREE

MATERIALSย ANDย METHODS

ย Materials

ย The anthropometric equipment that were used in this study were; the Stadiometer,ย Measuringย tape,ย skin-foldย andย Vernierย calipers,ย Digitalย BPย Apparatusย andย theย Innerย Scan Bodyย composition Monitor.

Advertisements

Heightย andย Weightย Measurements:

ย Stadiometer was used to measure height and weight, where the subjects were made toย stand on the stadiometer, with the weight evenly distributed on both feet and withoutย shoes. The heels of the feet were placed together with both heels touching the base ofย verticalย boardย ofย theย stadiometerย (NHANES,ย 1998).ย Theย feetย pointedย slightlyย outwardย at 60 degrees angle, with the subject putting on light clothes. The weight was measuredย to the nearest 0.1 kg and the height was measured from the sole of the feet to the vertexย ofย the head,ย and recordedย to theย nearest 0.1ย cm.

CHAPTERย FOUR

ย RESULTS

ย Descriptiveย statistics of theย study

Table 4.1 shows the mean values body circumferences of the girls and women of theย study population. The mean values of the hip circumference for the women and the girlsย were found to be 92.94ย ยฑ 8.81 cm and 86.60 ยฑ 7.30 cm, respectively. The mean valuesย of waist circumference for the women and girls were 80.59 ยฑ 9.25 cm and 75.62 ยฑ 4.20ย cm respectively and the mean values of the neck circumference of the women and girlsย wereย 31.43 ยฑ 2.61ย cm and 30.27ย ยฑ 1.92 cm, respectively.

CHAPTERย FIVE

ย DISCUSSION

ย Ageย atย menarche

Menarcheย indicatesย functionalย developmentย ofย theย femaleย reproductiveย systemย andย indicates their age of puberty or maturity (Ayatollahi et al., 2002). In the present study,ย the mean menarcheal of the subjects was found to be 14.85 ยฑ 1.78 years, which wasย higher than the one reported in the study carried out in Maiduguri by Jack et al (2005),ย where they found the age at menarche to be 13.6 years. The mean menarcheal age of girlsย and women were observed to be 13.55 ยฑ 1.35 years and 15.58 ยฑ 1.57 years respectively,ย which was seen to show some secular trend of decreasing with age, supporting the studyย conducted by Thomas et al (2001). The mean menarcheal age of the girls in the studyย population was found to be higher than the oneย reportedย by Ikaraoha et alย (2005) inย Riversย State,ย whereย theย meanย menarchealย ageย wasย reportedย toย beย 13.19ย years.ย Theย differences could be due to the fact that the present study was done in a rural area and theย influence of socio-economic status. The mean menarcheal age of women was observed toย be higher than that of the one found on the Saharia women according to study conductedย by Biswar and Kapoor, 2004. A study conducted by Anderson et al (2003) on Americanย girls showed a decrease in menarcheal age from 12.75 years to 12.54 years, which provedย a decreasing trend, which showed some similarity with the present study.ย In this study,ย the menarcheal age of the girls was found to be higher than the 13.0 years found byย Amaza et al (2012) in Maiduguri, but lower than the 15.26 years found by Tunau et alย (2012) in Sokoto. It may be that environmental factor had played greater role in the differences of the results in comparison to these two reports. The result of this study wasย found to be similar to that of Mpora et al (2014), who reported 13.6 years to be theย menarcheal age of girls in the rural area of Northern Uganda. The result of this study wasย found to be higher than the 13.44 years, but lower than the 13.65 years obtained byย Nwanko et al (2016), on Igbo and Hausa ethnic groups respectively, which could be as aย result of ethnic difference and the area of study.

CHAPTERย SIX

ย ย SUMMARY,ย CONCLUSIONย ANDย RECOMMENDATION

ย Summary

The study on the anthropometric and reproductive characteristics of the girls and womenย in Kumana Chiefdom presented interesting results, because some of the results agreeย withย findings ofย othersโ€™ย while aย handful did not agreeย with previousย reports.

The result of regression analyses presented in Tab.4.12 did not agree with many reportsย that found that, height couldย be estimated using palm length, hand length, foot lengthย and finger lengths. The result of this study showed that height can only be estimatedย usingย the weight and bodyย mass indexย (BMI)ย of theย individual.

The most interesting aspect of this study was that the majority of the women had theย ability to become pregnant, because there were many women with high reproductiveย success.ย Many womenย wereย observedย toย beย undergoingย menses,ย withย fewย ofย themย having irregular menstruations. It was also discovered that, many of the women hadย neverย hadย anyย miscarriage.

Another aspect of this study was that, the majority of the women had normal weight, only few of the women were seen to be obese, which is a clear indication that cases of cardiovascular disease could be rare in this study population. The normal weight observed in many of the women could have happened due to standard of living of the families and minimal nutritional stature of the families. Occupational status of the women and parents of the girls was another factor that could be responsible for the normal weight and BMI seen in this study, because almost everyone of the subjects wereย involved in farming and only few were found to be civil servants, which meant that thereย wasย someย level exerciseย that manyย subjects used to undergo at someย time.

There was knowledge of menopause among the different class of the women and theย source of knowledge of menopause was obtained from sermons received from churchesย because of high percentage of illiteracy in this area of study. The age at menarche of theย women was observed to be higher than that of the girls, in agreement with the secularย trend of events over the years and this also showed that there was improvement in theย nutritional statusย ofย the studyย population.

Conclusion

The risk of diseases associated with menarcheal age and menopause age could be veryย low, considering that the reproductive characteristics were not strongly correlated withย the anthropometric characteristics that could trigger any of the diseases. For exampleย breast cancer and arteriosclerosis, because most of the female were seen to be within theย normal BMI and bloodย pressure.ย The women that were menstruating wereย observed toย beย many, indicatingย higherย gynecological ageย in theย studyย population.

Recommendations

Theย followingย recommendationsย areย madeย inย viewย ofย theย observation onย theย results:

  1. Further studies should be conducted to compare with other ethnic groups or other chiefdoms in the Local Government Area
  2. Furtherstudies should be conducted to ascertain genetic influence on the anthropometric characteristics in this study population
  3. Further investigations hould be done on the anthropometric characteristics involving both sexes
  4. Another study should be done using larger sample to ascertain the influence ofethnicityย onย menarchealย andย menopausalย agesย inย the Localย Government Area
  5. Further investigation on the reproductive characteristics should be done toinclude sisters, twins, daughters and mothers and even the absence any of theย parents

Contributionย to knowledge

Theย studyย was ableย toย establishedย the following;

  • The BMI of the girls and women of Kumana Chiefdom are 77 ยฑ 2.79 kg/m2andย 23.72 ยฑ 3.71 kg/m2ย respectively.
  • The blood pressure of girls and women 95 ยฑ 11.16 mm Hg and 127.86 ยฑ 19.06 mm Hg respectively, for the systolic, as well as 70.76 ยฑ 9.54 and 81.02 ยฑ 11.12ย mmย Hgย respectively,ย for theย diastolic.
  • The waist circumference of 59 ยฑ 9.25cm for women and75.62 ยฑ 4.20 cm for the girls.
  • Menarcheal and menopausal ages of the women were 577ยฑ1.569 years, and 47.172 ยฑ 5.069 years respectively, and menarcheal age of 14.85 ยฑ 1.78 years for the study population and 13.55 ยฑ 1.35 years for the girls.
  • Lefthander subject had higher menarcheal age than the right handed of 05 ยฑ 2.19 years and 14.26 ยฑ 1.89 years, respectively
  • Menarcheal of girls born in the dry season were found to be (12.54 ยฑ 1.56 years)lower than the girls born in the rainy season (14.32 ยฑ 1.73 years), it was alsoย found that the menopause age of women born in the dry season (40 ยฑ 4.31 years)ย wasย lower thanย forย those bornย in theย rainyย seasonย (45ย ยฑ 4.89ย years)

REFERENCES

  • ย Achie, L.N., Olorunshola, K.V. and Mabrouk, M. (2011). Age at natural menopauseย among women in Zaria, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Medical Sciences, 3: 151 โ€“ย 153.
  • Adam, H. P. J. (2002). Menstruation in young girls: A clinical prospective. Obstetricsย andย Gynecology, 99: 655 โ€“ 662
  • Adamu, L.H., Asuku, A.Y., Taura, M.G., Tela, I.A., Datti S. andย Imam A. (2013). Neckย circumference: An upcoming tool of adiposity indices. Nigerian Journal of Basicย Clinicalย Science, 10: 82-85.
  • Adebisi, S.S. (2008). Medical impacts of anthropometric records. Annals of Africanย Medicine,ย 7(1):ย 42-47.
  • Adedavoh S.W., Agble T.K, Hobbs C. and Elkins T.E. (1986). The menarcheal age inย Ghanianย schoolย girls.ย Internationalย Journalย ofย Gynecologyย andย Obstetrics;ย 30:ย 63 –ย 8
  • Adekunle, A.O., Fawole, A.O. and Okunlola, M.A. (2000). Perceptions and attitudes ofย Nigerianย womenย aboutย theย menopause.ย Journalย ofย Obstetricsย andย Gynecology.ย 20(4):ย 525-529
  • Adewuyi,ย T.D.O.ย andย Akinade,ย E.A.ย (2010

Advertisements

WeCreativez WhatsApp Support
Our customer support team is here to answer your questions. Ask us anything!