Ethnopharmacological and Phytochemical Properties of Some Plants Used in the Management of Pain
Chapter One
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This research seeks
To ascertain the claims of traditional healers on the uses of the collected plants
To collect and identify plants used to treat pain in Jos North Local Government Area (LGA) of Plateau State, Nigeria.
To evaluate the analgesic, and anti-inflammatory properties of these plants.
To evaluate other pharmacological properties that may augment the analgesic activity and
To evaluate the analgesic properties of fraction(s) of the plant, if found to have analgesic properties.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
TRADITIONAL MEDICINE
Traditional Medicine is defined as the total combination of knowledge and practices (whether explicable or not) used in diagnosing, preventing or eliminating any physical,mental or social disease and which may rely exclusively on past experience and observation passed from generation to generation verbally or in writing (Sofowora, 1982).
History of Medicinal Plants
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about three-quarters of the world population relies upon traditional remedies (mainly herbs) for the health care of its citizens. In fact, herbs/plants are the oldest friends of mankind. They not only provide food and shelter but also serve as medicines for different ailments. Herbal medicines also called, traditional or natural medicine has existed in one way or another in different cultures/civilizations, such as Egyptians, Western, African, Chinese, Kampo (Japan) and Greco-Arab or Unani/Tibb (south Asia).
Historians from all around the world have produced evidence to show that apparently all primitive peoples used herbs often in a sophisticated way. Quinine from Cinchona bark was used to treat the symptoms of malaria long before the disease was identified and the raw ingredients of a common garden aspirin tablet have been a popular painkiller for far longer than we have had access to tablet- making machinery.
By the middle of the nineteenth century at least 70 – 80% of all medicines were derived from herbs. This era was followed by the revolution inspired by the development of the pharmaceutical industry and synthetic drugs dominated, though herbal medicine has never been out of the scene. Even today most pharmacies in the Western part of the world, stock at least 25% plant-derived drugs as supplements. Indeed today many pharmacological classes of drugs include a natural product prototype (Gilani et al., 1992). Aspirin, atropine, artimesinin, colchicine, digoxin, ephedrine, morphine, physostigmine, pilocarpine, quinine, quinidine, reserpine, taxol, tubocurarine, vincristine, and vinblastine are a few examples of what medicinal plants have given us in the past. Most of these plant-derived drugs were originally discovered through the study of traditional cures and folk knowledge of indigenous people and some of these could not be substituted despite the enormous advancement in synthetic chemistry.
Morphine, isolated from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) is one of the early molecules that entered into conventional medicine and is the humanity’s finest painkiller. Only the cancer patients suffering from terminal pain can appreciate the value of morphine, which remains drug of choice today despite its abuse potential. Indeed, the isolation of morphine from crude opium by Serturner in 1806 (Jurna, 2003) stimulated so much wide-spread research on vegetable drugs. This discovery led to the synthesis of morphine and morphine related compounds.
One of the important areas in which compounds from plant sources have contributed successfully is cardiovascular research (Gilani, 1998). Digitalis and other cardiac glycosides derived from the foxglove (Digitalis purpurea Linn.) are perhaps the classic examples. They represent a widely used group of clinically effective compounds which produce positive inotropic effect on the failing heart as well as having value in the treatment of atrial fibrillation. As a group they are superior to date to any synthetic or semi-synthetic substitutes even though they are among the most toxic group of clinically useful drugs and have unique mode of action with selective cardiotonic activity, without accompanying tachycardia (Rietbrock and Woodcock, 1985).
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
COLLECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIALS
Eighteen plants (Erythrina senegalesis, Nauclea latifollia, Kizelia africana, Pseudocedrela kotchyi, Crotalaris spp., Boswellia dalzielli, Khaya senegalensis, Annona senegalensis, Xylopia aethiopica, Ficus thonningii, Cassia goratensis, Prosopis africana, Stachytapheta indica, Crinum glaucum, Holerrhena floribunda, Momordica balsamina, Enantia chlorantha and Sarcocephalus esculentus) were collected between May and September 2005, based mainly on semi-structured interviews with selected knowledgeable elders (Martin, 1995; Cotton, 1996). Most of the interviews and discussions were conducted in Hausa, the official language of the people in Northern Nigeria, with the help of a translator. Interviews were held in a place where the informants were most comfortable (in their homes). Information regarding the gathering, preparation and uses of medicinal plants used for the management of pain were obtained. Additional discussions were conducted with the informants in order to ascertain the other uses of the plants. At the end of each interview, specimens of plants mentioned for the management of pain and related health problems were collected and identified (authenticated) by a taxonomist (Mr. Kareem) of the Federal College of Forestry and Prof. S.W.H Husseini of the Department of Botany, University of Jos, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Voucher specimens for nine medicinal plants with analgesic activities were deposited at the School of Forestry Herbarium, Jos, Nigeria. Their herbarium numbers of nine plants investigated are SF 00105J, SF 00106J, SF 00107J, SF 00108J, SF 00109J, SF 00110J, SF 00112J, SF 00113J, SF 00114J. In this collection, three knowledgeable elders were involved. These elders were chosen from the different sites with the assistance of a local administrator (Trad. Dr. Azija) attached to the Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Jos. During the course of the study, each informant was visited more than once in order to verify the reliability of data obtained. If what was said during the first visit concerning the use of a particular medicinal plant by an informant did not agree with what was said during subsequent visits, the information was considered unreliable and was rejected. Repeated visits also helped to gather additional information that was not mentioned during earlier interviews. All the participants in these interviews were located in Babale, Gada biu, and Rikos of Jos North Local Government in Plateau State, Nigeria.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
COLLECTION AND SELECTION OF PLANTS
The eighteen plants (Erythrina senegalesis, Nauclea latifollia, Kizelia Africana, Pseudocedrela kotchyi, Crotalaris spp., Boswellia dalzielli, Khaya senegalensis, Annona senegalensis, Xylopia aethiopica, Ficus thonningii, Cassia goratensis, Prosopis africana, Stachytapheta indica, Crinum glaucum, Holerrhena floribunda, Momordica balsamina, Enantia chlorantha and Sarcocephalus esculentus) collected are shown in Table 1. All the plants collected were claimed to be effective in the management of pain and related diseases. After preliminary investigations using acetic acid induced writhing reflex, nine (S. esculentus, C. goratensis, F. thonningii, P. kotschyi, E. chlorantha, N. latifolia, M. balsamina, S. indica, P. africana) plants were selected for screening (Table 2). They were screened for analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities. M. balsamina (most potent) was then chosen for in-dept study.
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
PHYTOCHEMICAL STUDIES
Phytochemical studies of the plants revealed that all the plants investigated contain flavoniods, tannins, and carbohydrates. Other chemical constituents present in some of the plants include alkaloids, saponins, anthroquinones, steroids, proteins and cardaic glycosides (Table 2). Flavonoids and protein were found at a higher concentration than other constituents. The presence of flavonoids may explain their biological activity. Previous studies have revealed that flavonoids in plants are responsible for the analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of most medicinal plants (Moroney, et al., 1988). Other constituents present e.g. alkaloids, may be responsible for the other pharmacological activities associated with M. balsamina.
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION
Highlights of the major findings of this research and contribution to
The practice of traditional medicine in Plateau State is as old as the existence of man. This study revealed that some of the herbs used for the management of pain and inflammation are effective for the management of these disease conditions. Nine plants studied (S. esculentus, C. goratensis, F. thonningii, P. kotschyi, E. chlorantha, N. latifolia, M. balsamina, S. indica, P. africana) for analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects were effective with M. balsamina having the highest activity. M. balsamina was also effective in tail flick and formalin models of pain. It has no anti-convulsant activity but had hypotensive, reduction of sleep onset, prolongation of duration of sleep, anti-pyretic and anti-diarrhoea activity. Sub acute toxicity studies revealed that M. balsamina had no significant effect on body organs, biochemical and Haematological parameters.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE
- Nineplants ( esculentus, C. goratensis, F. thonningii, P. kotschyi,
- chlorantha, N. latifolia, M. balsamina, S. indica, P. africana)studiedhave analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities.
- balsamina has analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypothermic, hypotensive effects, but is devoid of anti-convulsive effect. The multiple actions of M. balsamina make it a promising herb for the management of pain associated with these disease conditions and at the same time treat the underlying pathology.
- Methanolicpreparations of latifolia should be avoided.
- Extractof indica is safe if given orally, but toxic when administrered intraperitoneally.
- indica has anti diarrhoea effect and may also be useful in the management of constipation.
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