Societal Impact of Corruption in Journalism Practices
Chapter One
Objectives of the study
To further the investigation properly, the researcher believed that the study would have the following objectives.
- To ascertain if acceptance of a bribe influences the journalist’s sense of news judgment
- To determine whether bribe affects journalism practice in favor of the giver.
- Finally identify factors responsible for receiving bribes with a view of addressing them.
- To reveal whether journalist demands bribe as a requirement to discharge their duty
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Concept of Public Sphere
The emerging digital technologies which bring about global connectivity through the internet space have added a new dimension to the study of the public sphere. By public sphere we mean a virtual or imaginary gathering which does not necessarily need to exist in an identifiable space, where people come together as members of the society to articulate their views to influence the political institutions in the state. It constitutes a critical element of the society because it serves as a forum in which citizens communicate relevant issues and inform themselves about developments in the society. According to Habermas (1996, p.49), “public sphere refers to a realm of social life in which something approaching public opinion can be formed with access for all citizens”. The interaction between citizens, civil society, and the state communicated through the public sphere ensures the balance between stability and social change (McChesney, 2007). The public sphere travels across the private sphere and the sphere of public authority and through the vehicle of public opinion, brings the state in touch with the needs and aspirations of people in the society.
However, the fact that Habermas’s theory of the public sphere has been highly influential is what has led to the level of criticism and the extensive discourse in the literature. Susen (2011, p.52) defends this point by arguing that;
“The multifaceted forms of criticism levelled against Habermas theory of the public sphere should not be one-sidedly interpreted as evidence of analytical weakness and explanatory inadequacy; rather they should be considered as indicative of the fact that Habermas provides a useful and insightful theoretical framework for understanding the structural transformation of the public sphere in the modern period”.
In essence, what this quote means is that Herbermas’s public sphere theory provides an insight into what democratic participation looked like in old days. It is this insight that has provided the basis for a proper understanding of what we know today as the new public sphere and the transitions that gave rise to it. Narrowing this down to the context of citizen journalism, it is this model that supports the relevance of citizen journalism in our modern day public sphere and by extension democracy. This structural transformation is also reflected in Nigeria from the traditional public sphere to the modern day digitalised public sphere.
Among the criticisms against his ideology is based on the point of exclusivity and its failure to acknowledge the plurality of contemporary social sphere (Lyotard, 1984 cited in Papachariss 2002). Fraser (1990 cited in Nwofe 2012, p.3) argues that “the idea of public sphere as conceptualised by Habermas was based on the notion of its functionality as a realm for privileged men to exercise their dominance skill for it was exclusive of women and the working class members of the society”. Fraser goes further (p.4) to argue that the discussions were anchored on a bourgeois kind of decorum and protocols such that do not allow women and the working class in the society to participate as equals. In the same way, Susen (2011, p.52) points out that “an analysis limited to the study of bourgeois public sphere faces the risk of excluding other equally important public spheres from the picture”. What this means in essence, is that the bourgeois public sphere promotes a discourse of the interests of the dominant groups in the society rather than the general interest of all citizens.
Other critics doubt the existence of a true public sphere because according to Schudson (1997 cited in Nwofe, 2012), public discourse is not the soul of democracy due to the fact that it is rarely civil, unrestricted, unstructured, and too large and ultimately offers no solution to democratic problems. To understand this argument better, we will look at it from the perspective of the traditional public sphere and the new public sphere. Unarguably, both provided (and provide) an avenue for a space for people to gather, discuss and debate on the issues in the society. But this gathering most of the time does not influence political authorities. The reason for this is because the gathering lacks structure and regulation and as such, decisions reached there are not easily enforced. Second; most times people gather in the public sphere in order to just socialise and exchange ideas. What this means is that discussions and decisions are left on the space (virtual or physical) as soon as the discussant walks out of the gathering. The Natural desire to associate is what drives some participants of the public sphere and not necessarily the desire to effect change in the society.
In the mist of this debate lies the significance of the media in the quest for the extension of citizen’s rights. According to Khan, Gilani and Nawaz (2012, p.44), “media institutions are the foundations of the public sphere as these provide information and forums for public dialogue”. McCombs and Donald Shaw (1972) in their study on Agenda setting posit that;
- The media establish an agenda and in so doing are not simply reflecting reality, but are shaping and filtering public opinion and reality.
- The media’s concentration on the issues that comprise their agenda influence the public’s opinion and agenda and this together influence policy makers.
- The public and policy makers have the possibility to influence the media agenda as well.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study took on a two-phase empirical approach to arrive at its findings. The first phase of the primary data collection was completed through the use of questionnaires. Collins and Hussey (1997) define a questionnaire as a method for collecting primary data in which a sample of respondents are asked a list of carefully structured questions chosen after considerable testing, with a view to elicit reliable responses. This technique was chosen by the researcher due to time constraints which makes it easier to get information from large number of people within a short time. Another reason for adopting this technique is due to the unique characteristics of the sample population and the research itself. The study which has a link with corruption in the media makes it uncomfortable for the respondents to freely participate in especially without anonymity and questionnaire is the most suitable technique that can guarantee them such privacy. The questionnaire consists of open ended questions formulated based on the research questions and objective of the study. The reason for this is because closed ended questions are easier to code and statistically analyse (Gillham 2000). The questions followed a logical progression starting with simple themes and progressing to complex issues to sustain the interest of respondents and gradually stimulate question answering.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
This chapter focuses on the analysis and interpretation of data collected in the course of this study. According to Devos (1998, p.203), “data analysis entails the breaking down of data into constituent parts to obtain answers to research questions and to test hypothesis”. The purpose of interpreting data is to reduce it to an intelligible and interpretable form so that it can be studied and tested in relations to the research questions and objectives of the study. The results will be analysed in two phases. The first phase is the presentation of the data collected in tables and bar charts, while the second phase will discuss the findings, tracing its significance and links with the theoretical framework and argument.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The results from this study provide confirmatory evidence that citizen journalism impacts positively on mainstream journalism in Nigeria. This impact has curbed the unethical practice of brown envelope journalism which poses a threat to the image of the profession and ability of journalists to perform their duties objectively. The consensus view among the journalists surveyed reveals that the entry of citizen journalists into the information scene has blocked the avenues through which brown envelope journalists request or accepts gratifications to perform their duty. The major factor responsible for this rests on the fact that citizen journalism has provided alternative platforms for people to know what is happening in the society. What this means is that citizen journalism has created multitude of exits through which news worthy events are disseminated to the people unlike the single exit which existed before. The single gate exit enabled the mainstream media to gate-keep what comes out of the gate. Since this was the case, information coming out of that gate was no longer based on truth but on gratification. But with the multiple exits provided by citizen journalism, brown envelope journalists can no longer hide certain information from the people because it is already out there in Blogs and other citizen journalism sites.
Furthermore, the findings reveal that the daily routine of journalists in Nigeria is no longer the same since the emergence of citizen journalism. A good number of journalists surveyed said that the impact of citizen journalism is most felt on the speed of their reporting. The traditional style of news gathering and dissemination has changed to accommodate the presence of citizen journalists in the field. Journalists no longer need to be physically present to report a story as soon as it happens. All they need to do is to engage the reports of accidental journalists who happen to be at the scene to make up their stories. In fact, the findings reveal that journalists have shifted their investigative duty to citizen journalists due to the extra cost such investigations incur on their already stressed resources. This accounts for the fact that most breaking news (as revealed from the finding) comes from citizen journalism sites before featuring in the pages of newspapers or heard over the radio and television.
Again, the findings reveal that online citizen journalism sites are impacting on the editorial content and business of news organisations in Nigeria. This impact is felt most on the drop in the audience of population of mainstream media. The implication of this is that people will no longer buy newspapers like they used to or advertise like they used to. In fact, evidences discussed in the work reveals that citizen journalism sites and blogs are not just taking over mainstream media audience but also their revenue base. The study also reveals that the quality of mainstream media has improved since the emergence of citizen journalists.
The public sphere in Nigeria has changed into a more inclusive and participatory space where citizens engage in discus that has influenced government policies and improved accountability among the political office holders in Nigeria. Evidences show that the new public has unified the voices of over one hundred and seventy million people in order to monitor the activities of Politicians who have not been monitored for a long time. The extended effect of this is that even citizens in the country no longer involve themselves in acts of irregularity because it could be picked up on a recording device by anyone around.
This study does not validate the findings by Okoro and Onuoha (2013) which found that a good number of journalists do not perceive brown envelope as a bribe and as such does not affect the credibility of journalists or their contents. The results provides confirmatory evidence that journalists are increasingly becoming aware of the fact that brown envelope journalism is unethical and should be expunged from the media system. It also reveals that mainstream journalists recognise the fact that the emergence of citizen journalism in the media sector has blocked the avenues through which this unethical practice can thrive.
On the basis of the results, the work would argue that if participatory journalism is developing rather sluggishly in Nigeria as literature suggests (see Dare, 2010), it is because of the unwillingness of some media professionals to acknowledge the fact that citizen journalism is not a threat to the profession. Editors, News managers and older generation of journalists have refused to open up the news production process for citizen journalists to help them improve the profession. The country provides tremendous opportunities for citizen journalism to grow expand. A remarkable increase from its 19th position in the global ranking in 2005 to 8th position in 2014 shows that people are increasing getting themselves equipped to watch-dog the society and its leaders (including the media) to ensure all forms of corruption are removed from the country.
In summary, it is clear from the findings that citizen journalism and user generated is increasingly improving the practice of journalism in Nigeria and has helped to curb the unethical practice of brown envelope journalism. Its impact in the journalism process is reflected on the speed of reporting stories. The findings further reveal that the presences of online citizen journalism sites are fast taking over the audience of mainstream media and also their revenue. This challenge is a positive one because it will make the traditional journalists to expunge all unethical practice that is fast decreasing their image and credibility in the society. The study recommends that professional journalists should see the emergence of citizen journalism as an opportunity to expand and improve journalism sector just like other sectors have done. The banking sector, medical sector and so have all utilised the opportunity technology has offered them. The Automated Teller Machine (ATM/cash machine) has not replaced the role of cashiers in the bank, neither has computer and medical apps replaced the role of doctors in the hospitals.
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