Assessment of Functional Literacy Programmes for Women Empowerment in Cross River State, Nigeria
CHAPTER ONE
Objectives of the Study
Major Objective
The major objective of the study is to determine the effect of Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) on women economic empowerment.
Specific objectives
The specific objectives include:
- To assess the impact of Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) on women‘s access to and control over assets at household level.
- To assess the impact of Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) in improving women participation in decision making process at household level.
- To assess the role of Functional adult Literacy (FAL) on improving women
- To assess the role of Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) program in improving women‘s culture in saving and credit management
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition and concepts
The concept and definition of functional adult literacy
Rogers (1996) explained that ―The definitions of literacy have changed and developed over a period of time because it means many things in different contexts and different periods. People need different literacy skills in different contexts so that they can fully and effectively function in their daily lives. EFA Global Monitoring Report (2006) stated that ―Literacy as defined by UNESCO is the ability of a person to function in all the activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning of his/her group and the community and also for enabling him/her to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his/her own and the community‘s development. The World Bank Source book (2002) states ―Basic education is widely regarded as making a basic contribution to social and economic progress.‖ According to UNICEF 1999, Functional Adult Literacy means enabling a person to engage in activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning of his/her to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his/her own and the community‘s development.
Women population in Nigeria accounts for almost half of the population. But the literacy state of women adults (28.1%) is lower as compared with men (49.1%), (CSA, 2007). Their illiteracy lags them back in the social, economic and political empowerment. Especially Rural women are having little opportunity to generate their own income and to be economically empowered (Farm Africa, 2024). Rao & Kelleher (2005) stated that to achieve gender equality changes are needed in inequitable social systems and institutions. The need for institutional change is to address the root causes of gender inequality. According to IFAD (2009) the most effective means of maximizing contributions to gender equality and empowerment is to develop an institutional culture that is women-friendly and empowering that manifests these traits in all interaction with clients, and that address the institutional constraints.
The importance of education for rural girls and women is not questionable. Different research findings show that women literacy has positive and significant effect on socio-economic development of a society, since women are the foundation line in the community as a whole (Maïmouna Konaté, 2010). Although Nigerian girls and women are responsible for the survival of their families, their less access to basic education or drop out of school at an early age is due to socio-cultural and religious factors.
Women are all constrained by ‗the norms, beliefs, customs and values through which societies differentiate between women and men‘ Kabeer,( 2000). Everywhere, it can be seen in domestic violence, male-dominated decisions and women‘s inferior access to assets of many kinds. As a result of all these constraints, ‗Empowering‘ women has become a frequently cited goal of development interventions. Traditional development goals, such as better health or increased income, are cited as evidence of empowerment. There is increasing recognition that economically empowering women is also essential both to realize women‘s rights and to achieve broader development goals such as economic growth, poverty reduction, health, education and welfare. Women who are economically empowered contribute more to their families, societies and national economies. Economically empowering women is a win-win that can benefit not only women, but society more broadly (International Centre for Research on Women, ICRW, 2011). Women are a powerful economic force. For a country‘s growth, they make important contributions as entrepreneurs and employees. And they support development more broadly,
through the care and attention they bring to the welfare of their families. Women also make critical contributions to their families and communities, and to national and global economies (Simavi et al., 2010). Education equips girls and women with knowledge to make informed decisions about their everyday lives and to gain bargaining power. A mother‘s education influences her children more than the father‘s in terms of securing resources. With higher levels of education, women tend to have lower fertility rates, improved nutrition, and increased use of health services for themselves and their children (Vos 1996). Additionally, education serves as a predictor of better employment opportunities because educated women participate more in the labor force and earn higher incomes.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIALS
Research Design
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.‖(Claire Selltiz and others, as quoted by C.R Kothari 2004)
There are two different logical scientific reasoning important for any type of scientific research, deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning (inductive-deductive mode of thinking). Induction moves forward from particular to the general. Deduction is backward movement from general to particular. Quantitative researchers primarily follow a deductive route. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Quantitative research involves analysis of numerical data. Qualitative researchers primarily follow inductive route. Qualitative research involves analysis of data such as words. (Y. Kumar1998).
The study is quantitative by its very nature, because there will be much emphasis on precise measurement of variables. In addition, the study will try to examine causality and measure the relationship among variables quantitatively by using some statistical techniques. To some extent the study will also have qualitative characteristics because it uses thematic analysis for Interview and Focus group discussion.
Since the study is concerned with description of facts and investigating cause and effect relationship between probability of women economic empowerment and its determinants, it will use both descriptive and econometrics approach.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Socio Demographic Characteristics of Sampled Respondents
FAL program has about 12,400 members in Limmu Saqa village. Of them 5600 members were women. A total of 359 women who are members of FAL-Program were randomly selected for this study. Total of 210 members were willing to give full response. Non-FAL members were selected from non-program area to alleviate information contamination. One hundred eighty nine of randomly selected women were cooperative to give responses for questionnaire.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
Summary of the findings of the study
In this study an attempt was made to look into the role of Functional Adult Literacy on women economic empowerment in the case of Limmu Seqa Village. In the study both primary and secondary sources of data has been used. Questionnaire and Focus group discussions were the main tools of data collection. Descriptive statistics, econometric analysis and thematic analysis were carried out to accomplish the above-mentioned tasks.
Descriptive statistics shows that 87.8% and 90% of members of FAL program and non-members were married women. Of the total FAL members 19.5% were the head of the household, whereas only 2.6% non-members were the head of household. This indicates that significant number of FAL-members headed their respective households than non-members.
Coffee plantation is the major type of income generating activity for both FAL-members and non-members. But FAL-members excel in diversifying their income sources. Petty trade (97%), bee keeping (honey production) (40%) and poultry (62%) are the main income generating activities for FAL–members next to coffee plantation. FAL-members also point that they got engaged in petty trade and modern honey production after they join FAL-Program using the training and fund from the program as an initiative.
Among those who produce coffee beans (86%), milk (84.5 %) and eggs (91.5%), majority of them are FAL members. FAL-members began the production of honey, beer and coffee Husk after they joined the program. Members used to consider coffee husk as waste before they joined the program. All members of FAL-program get strong follow up and technical assistance form FAL program.
Seasonal training at spot level that incorporates farming of coffee from land preparation to post harvesting using scientific approaches (i.e. how to replace the old coffee varieties with new ones, the use of spacing while planting, transplanting, how to pick the red coffee during harvest time, drying, storing and marketing), business plan preparation, revision of by-laws, benefits of increasing member and exercising rotational leadership within the management of the group are among the technical assistances members have got from FAL-Program.
Majority of FAL-members have personal saving. All of FAL-members have traditional saving (Equb) which is five birr per week. Majority of those who are having modern saving (Credit and saving association) been FAL-members. Before they joined FAL- program, most members used to have weekly saving of two birr but currently it grew up to ten birr. Majority of FAL-members used the saving to invest in business. Only 27% of those who invest in business enterprise were non-members.
78.1% and 10.2% of those who decide on their saving by themselves without any embossment from any relative or husband were FAL-members and non-members respectively. This indicates majority of women who decide over their saving by themselves were FAL-members. Only 37.6% of FAL-members were used to save regularly before they joined the FAL program. 53.8% of FAL members rated the impact of FAL over their saving as ―high‖. Which shows the fact that the intervention of the program has a positive impact on women‘s saving.
Beside all the services, FAL-Program provides it has also credit service which is called FAL- revolving fund/seed money. All members of the program took loan from the program. Moreover members were also encouraged to take loan from credit and saving associations. There is a direct link between credit and saving associations and FAL-program office in the area. 86% and 20 % of those who took loan form local credit and saving associations were FAL-members and non-members respectively. Majority of the respondents took loan for the purchase of farm inputs. But FAL-member had loan for the purpose of petty trade 100 %( 15) and livestock 86.1 %( 50) only. The mean yearly income of FAL members is Br. 5988 whereas it is 2618 for non-members from non-program area with less than 60 birr variation from the mean. The mean income of FAL members before they join the program was Br. 2984 with variation from the mean of Br.60. 43% of FAL-members yearly income lays between Br.5501 to 6500. 71% of non -member‘s average yearly income is less than 3500 birr. The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test result indicates that there is a statistically significant difference between the income of FAL members and non-members.
71% of FAL members and 24% of non-members responded that they have control over decision makings. Majority of non-members have little participation in CBO, less control in decision making and no asset ownership. 90% of FAL members reported that they can make decisions over the use of loan and savings. 76%, 39.5%, and 93.8% of FAL members can decide on sale of cereals, sale sell of ox/cow/donkey, and investment in business respectively. Moreover, those who are members and those who are widowed or divorced decide almost in all issues independently without any kind of imposition from their male relatives. On the other hand, most non-members who were married women could did not play any important role in such decision- makings. In this case, their husbands or male relatives solely took the decision and just informed them after the decision is made. 82% of the FAL-members and 28% non-members are able to make independent decisions with or without consulting other parties over sale of goats and sheep.
There are twenty one types of trainings provided by FAL-program. Overall majority of members have satisfactory (partial) understanding levels of the trainings. Especially Training about crop rotation, credit and saving management and group formation were fully understood by significant number of FAL-members. But some members reported that they don‘t have understanding on trainings given on improved beehives, tree nurseries, post-harvest handling, and value added production, identifying market opportunities, income generations, keeping revenue and cost, and documentation.
Training implementation level is not as satisfactory as it is for training understanding level. Improved poultry breeds (82.4%), saving and credit management (88.6%) and group formation (71.9%) were trainings fully implemented by majority of FAL members. The rest of the training are either partially implemented or not implemented at all. All members of the program appreciated the technical assistance given by the program. Most of them are serious in following the trainings.
Women‘s ability to decide on their economic resources and opportunities is one of the major indications of women economic empowerment (Hashmi et. al.). For this research, control over decision making means when a women decide by herself or with equal and mutual consultation with her husband or relatives over economic resources and opportunities. The maximum likely hood logit model revealed that being member of FAL program, asset ownership, existence of personal saving, being head of the household and participating in community based organizations are significantly and positively related to women‘s control over decision making on their economic resources and opportunities. Whereas, educational status, age of respondents and household size has found to be statistical insignificant in determining women‘s control over decision making on their economic resources and opportunities. This might be due to the high homogeneity in educational status, age categories and household size among the respondents.
Conclusion and policy implications
Women are all constrained by the norms, beliefs, customs and values through which societies differentiate between women and men. Everywhere, it can be seen in domestic violence, male- dominated decision and women‘s inferior access to assets of many kinds. As a result of all these constraints, ‗Empowering‘ women has become a frequently cited goal of development interventions.
The objective of this study is to evaluate the role and contribution of Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) for women economic empowerment through assessing its impact on women‘s access to and control over assets, increased improved women participation in decision making process at household level, improvement of women‘s culture on saving and credit management and women‘s ability to enhance their income and income generating activities in the study areas of five communities of Limmu Seqa Village in Calabar of Cross River state.
This conclusion is drawn from the findings of the study in which methods and sources of information were triangulated. It is made by ensuring all the research questions that are answered by the study. The qualitative research method was employed because of the empirical nature of this study. The methodology that was employed to assess the impact of FAL on women‘s economic empowerment utilizes different approaches. In this study, in order to evaluate the impact of FAL on women‘s economic empowerment, the methodology used by Schuler and Hashemi (1994) is employed. To gather adequate information, different data collection strategies such as individual and focus group interviews and questionnaires were also discussed to evaluate the impact of FAL on women economic empowerment. Reasons for choosing these data collection strategies were highlighted.
According to the findings from the study, Functional Adult literacy program has yielded positive impacts on women‘s economic empowerment. The majority of women who are in the program have improved their access to and control over assets. In this regard, women now own and control economic assets such as household electronics materials, farm equipment, share farm machineries, livestock and better dwellings. In addition, members have improved their households through income generated from diversified activities and products. Asset possession of members has been found to be better when compared with those of non-members of the program.
Women‘s participation in the FAL-program has also contributed substantially to the improvement of their income. FAL-members have been found to be in better socio-economic status, in terms of their increased income levels, diversifying source of income and control over their earnings, when compared with the non-members from non-program area. The loan program/FAL revolving fund helped members to diversify their sources of income by practicing income-generating activities such as honey beer, coffee beans and coffee husk .In similar manner, the loan program improved the saving habit of women members and the control such women now exercise over their savings. All members now have personal cash savings, which shows a considerable difference when compared with non-members. Personal saving is mandatory in FAL-program for multiple purposes such as saving for repayment of revolving fund, saving for weekly Equb (traditional saving) and saving for reuse for enterprise.
The impact of FAL-Program intervention on the participation of women in household decision- making is very significant. The decision-making role of women members has improved over time. Thus, most of the matured clients are now able to make decisions by themselves on use of loan and savings, large sale of cereals, sale of ox/cow/donkey and Investment in business. They are also able to decide on expenditures for household items like, clothing and garment, self- ornaments and other items of adornment, and school expenses. It was also observed that FAL- members were found to be better in control over making decisions on their economic resources and opportunities, the typical economic empowerment indicator used for the study.
Although both descriptive statistics and regression analysis indicated that the intervention of FAL-program has improved the economic empowerment status of women, some questionable point has been observed on the results. Majority of members has no complete understanding of most of FAL-trainings. Quite significant number of FAL-program members yet not implemented some of the trainings provided by the program. It is seen that as some of FAL- members were reluctant by saving their money at home. Even though, asset control and decision making power improved for most of FAL-members it has no significant change for some members of the program. FAL-revolving fund is a vital financing tool for new income generating activities. Majority of members suggest that the revolving fund is not enough for the purpose it is assumed. Some members, who have kids, shared their view as they were not convenient to attended FAL classes with full concentration with thinking that if they bring the kids to the class they might interrupt the session and if they leave them at home they couldn‘t have someone who can take care of them.
Generally, the implication of this study is that, though additional efforts are needed, Functional Adult literacy program that is being rendered by ANFEA in collaboration with Oxfam GB has been contributing positively towards improving the socio-economic status of women, and has impacted on women‘s economic empowerment in the study area.
Policy Implications
Achieving women‘s economic empowerment is not a quick fix. It will take sound public policies, a holistic approach and long-term commitment from all development actors. The incidence of illiteracy is a rallying cry and the worst pressing challenge that requires coordinated intervention of all Government Departments, NGOs, and other related development actors through functional adult literacy approach that encourage women empowerment. The strong and genuine partnership must be created among government and other development practitioners to bring women economic empowerment and enhance their income in our country. Based on the findings of the study mentioned earlier, the following policy recommendations are forwarded:
The Functional Adult Literacy program should expand its service coverage to the areas where its service is presently non-existent in order to reach the women who need the service. Considerable outcomes would be registered in women‘s economic empowerment if the majority of vulnerable rural poor women have the opportunity to receive supportive services of the program. In addition to the recommendation to improve service reach and coverage, to increase the number of women participating in the program, FAL-program should provide the service in near-by Communities. To satisfy a larger number of women, FAL-Program should build its capacity in terms of human resource and finance. The organization should strengthen its network with different concerned bodies and should design strategies to collect additional funds for the main purpose of accommodating large number of women.
The program should design regular assessment mechanism of training understanding and training implementation level of the members. There must be ways to enhance the revolving fund. Trainings should be given at convenient time which does not overlap with critical farm seasons. The program also needs to revise meeting frequency in order to optimize the schedule. Beside this special consideration should be given for mothers who are having kids in order to enable them to earn all the benefits of the program. The program mostly focuses on economic and social issues, besides, it could be more helpful if it is utilized for sanitary and health related issues.
Functional Adult literacy is a forum for empowering women to build strong groups of diligent and committed women. It should therefore be encouraged and reinforced by a favourable policy framework that will create an enabling environment in which women will contribute to the economic growth of the nation.
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