Epidemiology of Gastro-intestinal Helminth Infection of Goats in Nsukka Urban
Chapter One
Research Objectives
General Objective
The main objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of the helminth parasites found in the studied animals.
Specific Objectives:
The specific objectives of the study were to;
determine the prevalence of the various helminth parasites isolated
determine the intensities of the helminth parasites isolated
Chapter Two
Literature Review
Goats are known to contribute substantially to the supply of animal protein for human consumption in rural areas in most parts of the world particularly in Nigeria. However, high mortality rates as a result of infections of gastrointestinal parasites remain major constraints to small ruminant production (Perry et al, 2002). The prevalence and distribution of gastrointestinal parasites of goats have been reported from most parts of the world.
Tefera et al. (2011) in their examination of the prevalence of parasites in ruminants encountered five genera of nematodes; Haemonchus species, Trichuris , Trichostrongylus , Oesophagostomum, Ostertagia and two types of cestodes Moniezia and Avitellina in Ethiopian sheep and goats.
Ndao et al. (1995) in their examination of gastrointestinal helminthiasis in small ruminants in the tree-cropping pasture zone of Senegal identified three trematode species (Fasciola gigantica, Schistosoma bovis and Amphistomatids); two cestodes species (Moniezia expansa and Cysticercus tenuicollis) and nine nematodes species. Trichostrongylus coubriformis was predominant in goats. There was a negative correlation between haematocrit, number of worm eggs per gram (epg) of feces during the rainy season. Their results showed that the gastrointestinal nematode burden was high during the rainy season than during the dry season.
Biu et al. (2009) in their fecal survey of intestinal parasites of ruminants in Maiduguri Research Farm recorded single infection with either Eimeria oocyst or Stronglyle ova, Strongloides ova and mixed infections of Taenia and Trichuris ova. There was high rate of infections in the animals.
In a survey in Benjul, Gambia on small ruminants, large spectrum of 16 helminth species were identified in infected animals. The nematodes Genera in order of predominance were Trichostrongylus, Heamonchus, Strongyloides, Gaigeria, Cooperia and Trichuris ovis. Infections with Moniezia benedini and Avitellina centipunta were also recorded. Goats carried and were less infected by cestodes. Trichostrongylus collumbriformis infections were high in dry season while Haemonchus contortus, Strongyloides papillosus and Oesophagostomum columbianum reached peak during the rainy seasons (July to October) (Fritsche et al., 1993).
In an investigation of helminth parasites of cattle and sheep in Utah valley (Fox et al. 1970) identified ten genera of helminthes in sheep; Trichostrongylus, Haemonchus. Strongyloides, Ostertagia, Nemetodirus, Moniezia, Cooperia, Oesophagostomum columbianum and Climatic conditions played a major role in the rates of infections.
Regassa et al. (2006) in their study on ruminants in Ethiopia revealed that seasons, age, species and agro-ecology were the major factors that enhanced the spread of gastrointestinal parasites in the area. The severity of infections varied considerably depending on local environmental conditions such humidity, temperature, rainfall and also management system. The gastrointestinal helminthes identified were Ascaris, Eimeria, Strongyles, Trichuris and Taenia. Stronglyes and Eimeria were most prevalent.
Bonfor et al. (1995) in their port-mortem helminthological examination performed on Togo on small ruminants in the plateau area of Togo revealed the presence of eight )8) nematode species which were; in decreasing order, Trichostronglys colubriformis (99%), Haemonchus contortus (82%), Strongyloides papillosus (67%), Cooperia curiticei (43%), Oesophagostomum columbianum (40%), Gaigeria pachyscelis (36%) and Trichuris ovis (4%). The number of eggs per gram faeces was high irrespective of the age and species of the animals. Gadahi et al. (2009) in their examination of parasites of goat and sheep in and around Rawalpindi, Pakistan reported high number of infections in both species. Specie-wise incidence of Trichuris, Haemonchus, Nematodirus and Fasciola were recorded as 40%, 28%, 27.77% and 4.44% respectively in sheep. Haemonchus was higher in goat compared to sheep. According to Loyd (1994) goats had relatively high susceptibility to infections with gastrointestinal nematodes compared with sheep, which increases with stocking density. Studies show that infections could be avoided by extensive husbandry with browsing, rotation of grazing and zero-grazing in deep little housing.
Chumnenpood et al. (1988) reported a case of paramphistomisasis in sheep from 40 herds in Nakornshen province, Thailand with morbidity and mortality rates of 50 – 90%. Infected animals showed the following signs: submaxillary oedema, dullness lack of appetite, diarrhea and eventually death. Large numbers of Paramphistomes were found in the upper part of the small intestine.
Rahamann et al. (1993) in their survey of faecal egg counts of goat in Malaysia observed significantly high worm egg count during the months of September and December exceeding 14000 eggs per gram of faeces. At other time they seldom reached 1000. The feacel egg count pattern followed seasonal patterns. An investigation in parasites of sheep and goat found both to be infected with identical nematode species but with different levels of infestation. The more common nematode in sheep in their order of predominance are Trichostrongylus Columbriformis, Haemonchus contortus, Strongyloides papillosus, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Gaigeria pectinata, C. punctata and three adult cestodes (Moniezia, Stilesia and Avitelline) were identified (Kanyari et al., 2009).
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The study area is Nsukka Urban. The area has an estimated population of 69,230 persons and a density of 146 per square kilometer. It is located about 60km northwest of Enugu, the capital of Enugu State and lies between latitude 60441 and 70001N and longitudes 60 14 and 70351(Figure 1). The mean temperature in the area in the hottest month of February is about 87.160F (30.640C) while the lowest temperature occurs in the month of November reaching 60.540F (15.860C). The old Nsukka province has a tropical relative humidity with annual range between 40% and 80%. The daily and annual peaks occur very early in the morning and rainy season respectively (Okoye et al., 2011). The urban city is endowed with basic amenities like electricity, pipe borne water, hospitals, and several Educational Institutions including the famous University of Nigeria. In addition, it has a major open market, the Ogige market. There is a section in the market where animals such as goats, cats, dogs and sheeps of varying sizes are brought and sold and an abattoir located at new community market (Ikpa, Nsukka) where goats, cattle, pigs etc are slaughtered (Okoye et al., 2009).
Sample Collection
In order to obtain adequate number of samples from the animal, collections were made at the abattoir. The abattoir was visited early in the morning before the butchers start the slaughtering process. Faecal samples were collected from the rectum of freshly slaughtered goats. These were placed in a dry, clean and sealed sample container and transformed to the Post Graduate Research Laboratory, University of Nigeria.
Sample Site
The abattoir located at Ikpa new community market was used for the study. This is where most of the goats sold at Nsukka town are slaughtered.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
Prevalence of Gastro-Intestinal parasites of Goats
The general prevalence of gastro-intestinal parasites in goats slaughtered in Nsukka urban was 94.2%. Red Sokoto goat has a prevalence of 94.87% while West African Dwarf (WAD) goat a prevalence of 92.3%. The difference in prevalence of gastrointestinal helminth parasites between breeds of goats slaughtered in the abattoir was not significant (P>0.05). Female goats (96.9%) has more parasites than male goats (90.0%) but the difference in prevalence was not significant (P>0.05). There was also no significant difference (P>0.05) in the prevalence of gastrointestinal helminth parasites with the age of goats. Single infection observed was nematodes while mixed infections involved a combination of nematodes and cestodes. No single cestode parasite was seen. The overall prevalence of single infection was 80.76%. The prevalence of single gastrointestinal parasite was higher in Red Sokoto (84.6%) than in West African dwarf goats (69.2%) although no significant difference was found. Male goats (80.0%) had statistically similar (P>0.05) prevalence of single infection as female goats (81.3%).
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Discussion
The prevalence rate of gastrointestinal parasites (94.2%) is consistent with the result of Tembely et al. (1998) in Kenya. The high prevalence rate could be due to the type of animal management system practiced, which is extensive pastoralism. Extensive pastoralism involves keeping large numbers of goats together. This could increase the degree of pasture contamination leading to higher prevalence (Nganga et al., 2004). Poor veterinary infrastructure and medication could have also been causative factor to the high prevalence rate (Dagnachew et al., 2011). This condition could also be due to less or slow development of immunity in goats to gastrointestinal parasites compared with situations found in sheep and cattle (Urquhart et al., 1987). Other contributing factors to the high prevalence rate are poor immunological memory following antihelminthic treatment of a primary infection and favourable humidity and temperature which generally support parasite growth and development due to the established direct relationship between moisture and prevalence of parasites (Chiejiena and Behnke, 2011; Dagnachew et al., 2011). The low prevalence of mixed infection implies poly-parasitism, which has been suggested to be an important cause of morbidity and loss of production in goats (Kumsa et al., 2011). However, the compromization of immune system of the host by poly-parasitism has been described to increase the susceptibility of goats to other diseases or parasites (Wang et al., 2006). The helminth parasites found in this study have also been reported by other researchers (Githigia et al., 2005; Waruiru et al., 2005). In most gastrointestinal parasite Studied, H. contortus have been reported to be most prevalent (Regassa et al., 2006; Dagnachew et al., 2011). Contrary to what has been reported, S. papilosus was the most prevalent in this study. T. colubriformis was the least gastrointestinal parasite found because its infective stage is the first stage larva and goats become infected and the ingestion of infective eggs during grazing (Soulsby, 1982). In the case, the infective stage is not capable of active movement. So, they remain at the level of grass root. Therefore, chance of infection of browser goats with T. colubriformis remains logically relatively low (Mohanta et al., 2007). The absence of paraphistomum spp in this study is consistent with the report of Zeryehun (2012) that paraphistomum spp were not detected at all times in goats.
The insignificant low prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in West African Dwarf goats agrees with Ayeni (1988), that West African Dwarf goats are different from other breed of goats. Ayeni (1998) found that West African Dwarf kids were able to mount strong immune response to chicken red blood cells, comparable to adult goats from three months of age. This suggests that West African Dwarf goats, which are usually fully mature at 6-7months of age, attain immunological maturity much earlier than most other goat breeds. Furthermore, Chiejina and Behnke (2011) working two ecotypes of West African Dwarf goats found in the southern humid and northern savannah zones of Nigeria infected with native strains of H. contortus, observed that the West African Dwarf goats ecotypes appear to be naturally endowed with unusually strong resistance and resilience to the native strains of gastrointestinal nematodes. On the contrary, in mixed infection, the prevalence rate was insignificantly higher in West African Dwarf goats. The presence of cestodes could possibly be the cause of the high prevalence. The high prevalence of H. contortus, T. colubriformis, O. columbianum, S. papiliosus and Monieza spp in West African Dwarf goats despite it reported resistance to gastrointestinal nematodes suggest little or no worm control, intensive grazing poor hygiene, malnutrition, concurrent infections with coccidiosis, ticks, lice, viruses and extensive mange mite infestations in the study area (Chiejina and Samuel, 2011).
The insignificant high prevalence of parasites in females except for mixed infections and the significant higher total, nematode, O. columbianum, S. papillosus EPG of females suggest that female goats are more susceptible to helminthiasis. It is assumed that sex is a determinant factor influencing prevalence of parasitism (Maqsood et al., 1996; Valcarel and Garcia, 1999) and females are prone to parasitism during pregnancy and peri-parturient period due to stress and decreased immune status (Urquhart et al., 1987). The higher prevalence of mixed infection in males can be linked to the fact that male goats are often not killed because they are kept to mate the females. Arthropod vectors like oribatid mites transmit Monieza spp which live on the pasture (Mohanta et al., 2007) and since male goats are often not killed because they are kept to mate the females, they have more this mite infestation and the consequent higher prevalence of mixed infection.
Adult goats have been reported to have lower prevalence and egg output of gastrointestinal parasites because they acquire immunological maturity as they get older and develop acquired resistance to parasitism (Dagnachew et al., 2011). However, in this study adult animals were more susceptible. Similar results have been observed in Gambia and Nigeria where adult and older goats bear higher worm burden than younger goats.
Generally, the intensity (EPG) of gastrointestinal parasite in this study is of the low infection type. According to Soulsby (1982), EPG is classified as light for egg count of 50-799, moderate (800-120 eggs) and severe (>1200 eggs). The statistical similarity in the egg output of the West African Dwarf goats and Red Sokoto goats suggest that egg output is in direct proportion with the feeding habit of the two breeds (Zeryehun, 2012).
Conclusion
Abattoirs in Nsukka urban need proper veterinary infrastructure and medications to control gastrointestinal parasites. Goat breeders should be enlightened on the disadvantages of extensive pastoralism, proper sanitation and effect of malnutrition. Mite infestation should be also be controlled as they are vectors of the cestode parasite; Moneizia spp. Female and male goats should be protected from the effect of gastrointestinal parasites.
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