Antibiogram and Microbial Carriage of Campus Shuttle Door Handles (A Study of Federal University of Technology, Akure)
Chapter One
The objectives of the study
The aim and objectives of this research are to:
(a) assess the role of campus shuttle door handles in dissemination of pathogenic microorganisms; and
(b) determine the antibiotics susceptibility and resistance pattern of the potential isolates.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature review
2.1 Background
Microorganisms are living things ordinarily too small to be seen without magnification. In terms of numbers and range of distribution, microbes are the dominant organisms on earth (Kathleen and Arthur, 2002). A large and diverse group of microscopic organisms that exist as single cells or cell clusters includes viruses, which are microscopic but not cellular (Jawetz and Adelberg, 2007). Prescott et al. (1999) emphasized that we live in the age of bacteria; they were the first living organism and probably constitute the largest of the earth’s biomass. Microbes can be found nearly everywhere, from the deep in the earth’s crust to the polar ice and oceans, to the bodies of plants and animals (Kathleen and Arthur, 2002). Being mostly invisible, the actions of microorganisms are usually not as obvious or familiar as those of larger plants and animals (Kathleen and Arthur, 2002).
The human body harbours several species of bacteria, fungi and protozoa. The anatomic sites where bacteria are usually discovered include the skin (Staphylococci and Bacteroides), Oropharynx (Streptococci, Anaerobes), large intestine (Enteric bacilli) and Vagina (lactobacilli) (Beaugerie and Petit, 2004.). These microorganisms colonise part of the body without causing infection. These ones are called normal body flora but can cause infection when found in another site, for example culture of Staphylococcus from a blood sample may represent skin contamination at the time of phlebotomy. The flora of gastro-intestinal tract (enterobacterieaceae) which are passed out through excreta are serious source and reservoirs from which they can be transferred to the susceptible host (Francesco, 2010). Faecal matter remains a major reservoir source of human pathogens, which in adverse situation may bring about outbreaks of infection example shigellosis (Francesco, 2010). The occurrence of this may be attributed to the unhygienic use of the toilet facilities, which results to the gross contamination of the hand which may be passed to articles including door-handle, which individuals are less likely to see as contaminated (Francesco, 2010).
These articles once contaminated becomes vehicle for transmission of infection, such that the user may succeed in picking this pathogens by using this article such as when entering into a shuttle bus, the organism thus picked can introduce infection into such individual either orally or topically or can be transferred to another person (Francesco, 2010). The people exposed to this risk factor are the students, staff, other members of the university community as well as members of the public who may be unfortunate to come down with the infection, which is in nature in the course of using the door handles (Francesco, 2010).Entering the antibiotic era, it was anticipated that morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases would continue to decrease over time. However, the death rate from infectious diseases increased by 58% from 1980 to 1992, making it the third leading cause of death in the world by 1992 (Pinner et al., 1996). Furthermore, with the emergence of drug-resistant pathogens, many infections have become more difficult to treat. A classic characteristic of human parasitic and bacterial agents is the evolution of routes for transmission to susceptible hosts. The environment plays a critical role in transmission to humans, pathogens with many environmental materials serving as vehicles (Anderson and May, 1991). Microbial contaminants may be transmitted, either directly, through hand-to-hand contact, or indirectly via food or other inanimate objects (Pinner et al., 1996). These routes of transmission are of great importance in the health of many populations in developing countries, where the frequency of infection is a general indication of local hygiene and environmental sanitation (Pinner et al., 1996).
Research has shown that the combination of regular handling of surfaces creates a prime breeding ground for all sorts of microorganisms that are normally found in our skin and environment (Pinner et al., 1996). The human body surface is constantly in contact with environmental microorganisms and become readily colonized by certain microbial species (Prescott et al., 2005). The adult human is covered with approximately 2 m2 of skin, with surface area supporting about 1012 bacteria (Hui et al., 2001). The normal microbiota of the skin include among others; coagulase negative staphylococci, Dipththeroids, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococci spp, Bacillus spp, Mallassesia furfur and candida spp. Others include Mycobacterium spp (occasionally), Pseudomonas and Enterobacteriaceae (Roth and Jenner, 1998).
CHAPTER THREE
Materials and methods
Ethical clearance
The consent and permission of the shuttle bus drivers were sought and obtained before specimen collection. The consenting drivers were assured of the confidentiality of the information obtained from the study. The samples were taken randomly from the shuttle buses operating within the university campus.
Sample collection
Samples were collected following the methods of Fawole and Osho (2007). Sterile swab sticks were immersed in sterile normal saline and then used to swab the door handles both at the external and internal sides for proper collection, the swab sticks were there after placed in sterile sealable plastic bag and immediately transported to the laboratory. A total of 150 samples were randomly collected and analysed during the study.
Media preparation and isolation of microorganism
The different media used in the study are: nutrient agar (NA), potato dextrose agar (PDA), eosin methylene blue agar (EMB), blood Agar, salmonella shigella agar (SSA), and Mueller Hinton Agar. Each medium was prepared following the manufacturer’s specification as follows:
Nutrient agar
This was used for the cultivation of a wide range of bacteria. A 5.6 g of the nutrient agar powder was weighed and suspended in 200 ml of sterile distilled water. It was then shaken to mix properly and heated for 5 minutes to dissolve the powder completely. After heating, the mouth of the flask was plugged with cotton wool and then wrapped with aluminum foil. The medium was then sterilized in the autoclave at a temperature of 121 oC for 15 minutes. The sterilized medium was poured aseptically into sterile Petri dishes at 45 oC.
CHAPTER FOUR
Results
Total bacterial load
The total viable count from different category of door handle is shown in Table 1. The table showed that the highest total viable count was observed on the front passengers’ door handles with a total of 228.08 ± 2.05 (x104 cfu/ml) and the lowest total viable count was obtained on the back passengers’ door handles with a total of 176.92 ± 2.60 (x104 cfu/ml).
CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion
All over the world, microbiology standards in hygiene are prerequisite for a healthy living. It is not uncommon however to observe shift in hygiene practices that deviate from standards in developing and developed world. This investigation confirms such deviation, as arrays of microorganism are found associated with door handles of campus shuttle buses. This is in conformation with the study of Pinner et al. (1996) which indicated that the regular handling of surfaces create a prime breeding ground for all sorts of microorganisms that are normally found on the human skin and the environment.
CHAPTER SIX
Conclusion
The overall implication of this result is that the shuttle buses which were made to be used as a means of easy and accessible transportation by students, staff and every member of the university community is now becoming means by which transmission of infection can be made. The consequences of this is threat to human lives, hence the need for educating the public on personal hygiene and good handling practice. Due to low awareness among the shuttle drivers, the door handles are not frequently disinfected but extensively used by the passengers and the drivers.
Although, it seems impossible, in the light of these findings, students should be aware of the potential transmission of infectious organism to human from the door handles and cautious of their hand contact with the door handles.
Contribution to knowledge
The project has provided information on:
(a) the prevalence and nature of microorganism that can be transmitted via shuttle door handles;
(b) antibiogram of the isolates to commercial antibiotics; and
(c) possible control and preventive measures to forestall outbreak of infections transmitted through this vehicles.
Recommendation
Since restriction of students from using the shuttle buses or the prohibition of the shuttle buses from operating within the university campus may prove impractical, strategies for preventing disease transmission are needed especially given the risk of continuing contamination through hand-to-hand contact. Such strategies should target behaviour control of the drivers and the passengers. In addition the following public health measures should be considered:
- Frequent hand cleaning, especially with instant hand sanitizers is the most significant step to help prevent feacal-oral and droplet transmission.
- The university authority should take up the task of educating the drivers on the need to regularly clean the door handles with relevant disinfectants.
- Both passengers and drivers should also be made known that covering of the mouth or nose when coughing or sneezing decreases droplet spread and makes hand cleaning even more important.
Finally, emphasis should be laid on regular surface disinfection of fomites as means of reducing the transmission of pathogenic microorganism and promote healthy family and community life.
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